Master of Arts, The Ohio State University, 2007, Graduate School

Committee: Not Provided (Other) Subjects:

PHD, Kent State University, 2010, College of Arts and Sciences / Department of Psychological Sciences

Spouses of adults with type 2 diabetes often provide social support to reduce patients' distress and facilitate healthy behaviors and social control to discourage patients' unhealthy behaviors. Yet, it is unclear how spouses' support and control affect patients' daily management of diabetes through physical exercise; daily physical exercise can be especially challenging for older adults with diabetes. The aims of this dyadic, daily diary study were to investigate 1) Direct associations between spouses' exercise support and exercise control and patients' daily physical exercise, 2) Patients' daily emotional responses as mediators of the direct associations, and 3) Patients' gender as a moderator of the direct and mediated associations. Older adult couples (N = 70) were recruited from physicians' offices, diabetes education centers, senior citizen organizations, and through newspaper and radio advertisements. To be eligible, adults had to be diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, be at least 55 years old, be in a marriage or marriage-like heterosexual relationship, and reside with the spouse in the community. The non-diabetic spouse had to be the primary source of assistance with the patient's diabetes management. Patients and spouses independently completed laptop diaries (once an evening for 7 days) and paper questionnaires. Patients also wore an activity monitoring device on the wrist throughout the diary period. Multilevel modeling analyses were used to test the direct, mediated, and moderated associations between spouses' exercise support and exercise control and patients' physical exercise. On days in which spouses provided exercise support, patients engaged in more physical exercise. On days in which spouses provided exercise control, patients engaged in less physical exercise. Patients' emotional responses on a given day did not mediate the association between either spouses' exercise support or exercise control and patients' physical exercise. For female patients, h (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Mary Ann Parris Stephens PhD (Advisor); Kristin Mickelson PhD (Committee Member); John Updegraff PhD (Committee Member); T. John Akamatsu PhD (Committee Member); Susan Roxburgh PhD (Committee Member); Gregory Smith PhD (Other) Subjects: Behaviorial Sciences; Health; Personal Relationships; Psychology

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Bowling Green State University, 2023, Sociology

While the field of criminology has focused on turning points that could shift individuals away from crime, little research has examined how criminal offending shapes sexual behaviors, adult relationships, and achieved fertility. Those involved in criminal activity arguably could face worse outcomes in these behaviors, largely due to considerations of labeling theory, where stigma could result in difficulty finding relationship partners. Certain types of crime may also be more stigmatizing than others, making one less desirable as a partner. This effect may be gendered in nature, such that certain types of crime may be more damaging for women as opposed to men. My project draws on criminology literature on labeling theory, the age-graded theory of social control, and social homogamy to predict numerous sexual, relationship, and fertility outcomes. Using Waves I, III, and IV of the National Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), the following studies examine the impact of criminal activity on a variety of risky sexual behaviors, relationship type, and fertility outcomes. I find that both types of crime predict a younger age at first sex and more opposite-sex partners, though gender differences exist in how well the mechanisms included explain these relationships. While property crime initially decreases early union risk for women, this type of criminal behavior increases early union risk for men. Violent crime decreased early union risk for both gender groups, but the relationship only remained significant for women. Violent crime decreased the odds of Multiple-Partner Fertility (MPF), but only in reference to Single-Partner Fertility (SPF). Overall, linkages existed between the outcomes of all three studies.

Committee: Danielle Kuhl Ph.D. (Committee Chair); Lee Nickoson Ph.D. (Other); Karen Benjamin Guzzo Ph.D. (Committee Member); Stephen Demuth Ph.D. (Committee Member); Thomas Mowen Ph.D. (Committee Member) Subjects: Criminology; Sociology

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2022, Environment and Natural Resources

The killing of nonhuman animals is a routine and widespread practice in many contemporary human societies. In the context of wildlife specifically, this practice can occur under legal circumstances, such as through the authorized application of lethal control or illegally through the killing of wildlife in violation of state, federal, or international law (i.e., poaching). Regardless of legal status, the decision to support or engage in any action that results in the intentional death of a wild animal is influenced by a range of cognitive, social, and cultural factors. Thus, this dissertation draws upon theoretical frameworks established within the fields of sociology and psychology to advance, and refine, the application of social science concepts to better understand factors that influence individual judgments and decisions about the appropriateness of killing wild animals. Specifically, Chapter 2 assesses unexplained support for the lethal (and legal) management (i.e., punishment) of both human and nonhuman (wild) animals accused of violating social expectations or rules, via the application of capital punishment and lethal control respectively. Demonstrating that certain individuals report greater support for punishment irrespective of species or circumstance (i.e., experimental condition), results suggest that heuristic processing in the absence of detailed information upon which one could deliberate leads to significant consequences for the punishment of others. Exploring the ways in which perceptions of the illegal killing of wildlife are shaped by one's social landscape, Chapter 3 engages social norms theory to examine normative beliefs regarding the frequency, acceptability, and accountability one may expect if choosing to engage in wildlife-related noncompliance. Revealing the perceived power of informal sanctioning via one's community, results indicate that while increasingly punitive “tough on crime” anti-poaching policies may be widespread, learning and (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Alia Dietsch PhD (Committee Chair); Jeremy Bruskotter PhD (Committee Co-Chair); Linda Lobao PhD (Committee Member) Subjects: Conservation; Environmental Studies; Psychology; Sociology; Wildlife Conservation; Wildlife Management

PHD, Kent State University, 2022, College of Arts and Sciences / Department of Sociology and Criminology

Animosity between American partisans has been rising for decades, producing governmental dysfunction, uncertainty, and even political violence. Theory and research on social identity processes imply that as antagonism rises, it may erode a shared sense of what it means to be American. I argue that to minimize the resulting psychological uncertainty, partisans will be drawn to outrage-driven media that castigates political opponents. Specifically, partisans will find vitriolic messages about members of the other political party reassuring, provoking the opposing party to respond with similar messages. That same search for psychological certainty will undermine support for political opponents' legal rights and encourage partisans to punish their own relatively moderate in-group members that are not sufficiently hostile to the opposition. To test these predictions, I use crowd-sourced survey experiments in fictitious social media environments that expose participants to high or low levels of partisan conflict. Outgroup aggression consistently fails to provoke retaliatory responses, but predictions about how social identity processes themselves would produce extreme responses were supported.

Committee: Will Kalkhoff (Advisor); Susan Fisk (Committee Member); Ryan Claassen (Committee Member); Richard Serpe (Committee Member); Carla Goar (Committee Member) Subjects: Political Science; Social Psychology; Sociology

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2022, History of Art

Above all others in Renaissance Italy, the painters of sixteenth-century Venice were renowned for their depictions of the eroticized female nude. Indeed, the sensually painted flesh of these figures, as seen in Titian's famous Venus of Urbino, still beckon the modern beholder's gaze and activate a desire to touch. Most scholars of art history have largely agreed that the Italian Renaissance nude figure served as a status symbol for elite men to collect and salaciously enjoy in private. While I concur that many of these paintings were produced for the delectation of the male gaze, my dissertation proposes that certain depictions of the nude, especially those from late Renaissance Venice, also constituted a response to women's rising influence in early modern society. Furthermore, these paintings depict not only nude women, but also nude men, in compositions and situations that speak to period anxieties over what we now refer to as gender politics. In the mid-sixteenth century, artists of the Veneto began to more frequently paint the ancient gods, goddesses, and heroes of their secular compositions performing illicit sexual acts that were, to contemporary Venetians' eyes, immoral and/or illegal. More specifically, these depictions of the nude, which were often anachronistically painted in contemporary Venetian surroundings, mirrored the city's own inhabitants acting out improper sex acts such as adultery, rape, and prostitution. In closely examining four examples of this phenomena from circa 1550–1610, my dissertation project demonstrates how these works of art would have provoked unease in the eyes of contemporary Venetian viewers, especially affluent males. In illustrating these scenes of social disorder, I argue that painters of late-sixteenth-century Venice ultimately exposed as well as prompted men's fears of losing sexual and societal control over to women.

Committee: Christian Kleinbub (Advisor); Byron Hamann (Committee Member); Andrew Shelton (Committee Member); Karl Whittington (Committee Member) Subjects: Art History; Gender Studies; History; Literature; Womens Studies

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2021, Social Work

As two of the most prevalent developmental problems among American children, internalizing and externalizing symptoms are closely associated with negative outcomes (Bitsko, 2016). Although neighborhood factors strongly influence children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms, few studies have focused on understanding the influences of various neighborhood environment on such symptoms. To fill this research gap, this study systematically captures the influences of different types of neighborhood factors on behavioral problems in different developmental stages. Three research topics were examined in this dissertation: (1) the influences of two types of neighborhood factors (neighborhood structural and process factors) on internalizing and externalizing symptoms in early childhood; (2) the gender differences of the influences of neighborhood factors on adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms; and (3) how the two types of neighborhood factors affect the longitudinal development of internalizing and externalizing symptoms from early childhood to adolescent. Using the six-wave longitudinal dataset from Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, Structural Equation Model was conducted to answer the first two research questions and Latent Growth Curve Model was used to answer the third research question. Findings of this study extended the existing knowledge on child behavioral symptoms and help inform both macro- and micro-level interventions.

Committee: Susan Yoon (Committee Co-Chair); Kathryn Maguire-Jack (Committee Co-Chair); MoYee Lee (Committee Member) Subjects: Social Work

Master of Arts (MA), Bowling Green State University, 2021, Sociology

Research in criminology has often treated peers as primarily criminogenic in their influence on offending behaviors. While scholars have posited different explanations for the consistent association between peer delinquency and offending from a variety of epistemological traditions, little work has considered the importance of peer relationships within this process. Based on this gap in the literature, and a call for research to expand on the way peers are conceptualized and measured, the current study focuses on the independent and interdependent effects of peer relationship quality and peer delinquency in explaining offending behaviors. The Pathways to Desistance data are used to address this issue and encompass a longitudinal sample of about 1,300 adjudicated adolescents across 11 waves of data. Drawing from social learning and social control theories, I use a life-course framework to consider the importance of peer relationships following adjudication. Findings from a series of mixed-effects models demonstrate that peer relationship quality is significantly predictive of increased aggressive offending but is not a significantly associated with income-based offending or polysubstance use. Further, while peer relationship quality does mitigate the positive relationship between delinquent peers and income-based offending, there is no significant interaction effect for polysubstance use nor aggressive offending. Overall, findings in the current research highlight that changes in peer relationships following adjudication may function as a key turning point when it comes to self-reported offending behaviors, particularly when examined in tandem with peer delinquency.

Committee: Thomas Mowen (Advisor); John Boman IV (Committee Member); Danielle Kuhl (Committee Member) Subjects: Criminology; Sociology

Doctor of Philosophy, University of Akron, 2019, Sociology

On any given day there are approximately 31 million youth under the supervision of the U.S. court system (Hockenberry and Puzzanchera 2018). In 2015 alone there were nearly 900,000 juvenile delinquency cases brought before the court. Currently, there are approximately 70 million juveniles in the United States, with this number expecting to continually rise based on projections into 2060. These numbers demonstrate the necessity of research to determine which factors and circumstances contribute to juvenile delinquency. This research aims to predict juvenile delinquency by extending the understandings of Hirschi's (1969) social control theory. There is an extensive amount of research on social control theory which indicates the importance of social bonds with regards to deviance. However, despite the abundance of previous studies, there remain substantial gaps among the literature. First, previous literature has significantly relied upon cross-sectional data– measuring specific bonds and/or specific forms of deviance at one point in time. Second, the majority of research focuses only on one or two of Hirschi's (1969) social controls. Utilizing Hirschi's (1969) social control theory, this research will do three things. First, it will predict juvenile delinquency in adolescence by measuring all four types of social bonds (i.e. attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief). Second, it will examine the impacts of social controls on deviance in young adulthood. Third, it will assess whether early bonds have a lasting effect beyond adolescence into young adulthood. Results indicate that early social bonds are significant in adolescence and in young adulthood. Moreover, findings show that bonds formed in adolescence have, at least, marginal lasting effects on deviance into young adulthood. This research demonstrates the importance and longevity of early social bonds in the crucial transition from adolescence to young adulthood. These findings could be essential to (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Stacey Nofziger (Committee Chair); Kathryn Feltey (Committee Member); Robert Peralta (Committee Member); Shannon Zentall (Committee Member); John Zipp (Committee Member) Subjects: Criminology; Sociology

Doctor of Philosophy, Case Western Reserve University, 2017, Social Welfare

Neighborhood disorder is a social welfare issue that is associated with multiple negative outcomes for individuals including increased substance use, increased exposure to violence and crime, and mental health challenges. Collective efficacy is a widely studied predictor of positive community-level outcomes including lower levels of neighborhood disorder. However, relatively few community interventions based on collective efficacy have been developed. Further, studies evaluating interventions based on collective efficacy have reported mixed findings. A possible reason for the difficulty of operationalizing collective efficacy may be our current conceptualization of collective efficacy. The current understanding of collective efficacy views the concept as a combination of social cohesion and informal social control. However, recent research suggests that social cohesion and informal social control are unique constructs that are best conceptualized and measured separately. Further, research suggests that there may be factors that mediate the relationship between social cohesion and informal social control. This dissertation seeks to advance our understanding of collective efficacy in order to increase its utility for social work practice. A key component of collective efficacy is a community's shared belief that collective action will be successful. Although this belief has been discussed conceptually, it has yet to be measured in collective efficacy research. To address this limitation, I develop a concept called, “Mutual efficacy,” which is defined as, “community members' beliefs that collective action will be successful at attaining group goals.” This dissertation utilizes data from the Seattle Neighborhood and Crime Survey (SNCS) to explore mutual efficacy's role as a mediator between social cohesion and informal social control. The SNCS is a survey of 3,365 residents in Seattle, Washington. The factor structure of social cohesion, mutual efficac (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Mark Joseph (Committee Chair); Claudia Coulton (Committee Member); Mark Singer (Committee Member); Darcy Freedman (Committee Member) Subjects: Social Psychology; Social Research; Social Work; Sociology

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2015, EDU Physical Activity and Educational Services

Sport is a critical context for youth development (Riley & Anderson-Butcher, 2012; Weiss, 2008). Through engagement in sport-based positive youth development (PYD), vulnerable youth can experience relief from risk prevalent in their environment and develop assets to overcome adverse circumstances (Anderson-Butcher, Iachini, Riley, Wade-Mdivanian, Davis & Amorose, 2013; Petitpas, Cornelius, Van Raalte, & Jones, 2005). Organizational effectiveness of sport-based PYD programs is imperative due to the impact programs can have on youths' successful transition to adulthood. A sport-based PYD program is considered effective when exposure to an intentionally designed intervention, with theoretical justification, produces the desired program outcomes (Dusenbury, Brannigan, Falco, & Hansen, 2003; Law & Shek, 2011; Nation, Crusto, Wandersman, Kumpfer, Seybolt, Morrissey-Kane, & Davino, 2003). Research examining organizational effectiveness, within the context of sport-based PYD, can inform program planning, improve program practices, and enhance PYD. The purpose of the current study was to examine program dosage as a programmatic mechanism of PYD, to determine how program implementation and engagement influences youth development in the context of sport-based PYD. To investigate program dosage as a programmatic mechanism of PYD, within the context of sport-based PYD, data were collected from 52 staff and 417 youth participants engaged in a sport-based PYD summer program. Program staff completed self-assessments of their implementation of the program, including adherence to program structure, use of curriculum, and creation of a caring, mastery-oriented climate. Additionally, youth reported perceptions of program engagement (i.e., behavioral engagement, belonging, leader support), as well as social and athletic competencies (i.e., PYD indicators). Youth attendance was collected as secondary data, as a measure of quantity of program dosage. Confirmatory factor analyses (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Brian Turner (Advisor); Donna Pastore (Committee Member); Dawn Anderson-Butcher (Committee Member) Subjects: Sports Management

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2014, Sociology

Both rates of school suspension and expulsion and the use of therapy or stimulant drugs as treatment for a growing number of behavioral problems among children have increased steadily over the past twenty-five years. Using two different nationally representative data sources, this dissertation examines how behavior problems in African American and White children, particularly young males, are differentially socially constructed along racial lines. Findings from the first paper suggest that over the previous two decades, White boys are being medicalized through the use of therapy or medication, while African-American boys are being criminalized through school suspensions and expulsions. More importantly, this disparity cannot be explained by differences in the frequency of observed misbehavior or other socioeconomic characteristics. Results from the second paper reveal that racial disparities in the labeling of childhood misbehavior significantly contribute to racial disparities in trajectories of social control throughout adolescence and young adulthood. White males use medicalization to avoid long-term involvement with the criminal justice system, while their African Americans counterparts are unable to do so. In the third paper, I find that the school-level association between racial composition and criminalized or medicalized school discipline is highly dependent on the proportion of African American students in the surrounding school district. Moreover, the moderating influence of district level racial concentration appears to work in opposite directions for punishment as opposed to medical approaches.

Committee: Cynthia Colen PhD (Advisor); Dana Haynie PhD (Committee Co-Chair); Christopher Browning PhD (Committee Member) Subjects: Criminology; Sociology

Doctor of Philosophy, University of Akron, 2014, Sociology

This dissertation addresses the practice of informal social control in neighborhood settings by integrating extant theory with constructs from outside the mainstream of criminology. Empirical support comes from an ethnographic project conducted over a period of five years in an urban neighborhood setting. Detailed knowledge of this local context is used to frame informal social control as produced and enacted by residents in ways that both reflect and create the larger neighborhood social and cultural dynamics. Specifically, three ethnographic accounts are offered as separate papers to provide different lenses on the neighborhood dynamics. Each account can also be read as demonstrating the variability of ethnographic methodology. Taken together, these empirical papers not only report findings, but also illustrate various aspects of the unfolding process of constructivist grounded theory-building. For example, the first paper highlights how a serendipitous finding gave shape to further data analysis, illustrating the nature of “emergent” findings in grounded theory analysis. The second paper reports findings from more advanced stages of analysis and demonstrates the preliminary stages of theory construction. Finally, the last paper emphasizes the reflexive nature of ethnographic (re)presentation by presenting “findings” in the form of an evocative autoethnography. The dissertation contributes to the criminology scholarship by introducing theoretical constructs that have heretofore not been connected directly to practices of informal social control. Moreover, this dissertation is also a statement in support of the integration of more “first-person ethnography” (Venkatesh 2013) into the core of criminology. Future work will continue to build on current scholarship to provide a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between individuals and communities.

Committee: Kathryn Feltey Dr. (Advisor); Matthew Lee Dr. (Committee Member); William Lyons Dr. (Committee Member); Tiffany Taylor Dr. (Committee Member); Brent Teasdale Dr. (Committee Member); John Zipp Dr. (Committee Member) Subjects: Criminology; Sociology

PhD, University of Cincinnati, 2011, Education, Criminal Justice, and Human Services: Criminal Justice

This dissertation tests the ability of four rival criminological theories to explain adolescent substance use: differential association/social learning theory, social bond theory, self-control theory, and general strain theory. Special attention is paid to whether the theories are general, as the inventors of the theories claim, or gender-specific to males, as critics of the theories claim. To undertake this theoretical assessment, a secondary analysis was conducted using data from the Rural Substance abuse and Violence Project (RSVP). The respondents, drawn from grades 7 to 12, were pooled across four waves. The N for this study is 9,488. The empirical test revealed three main conclusions. First, measures of the components of differential association/social learning theory, social bond theory, self-control theory, and general strain theory were able to explain substance use among adolescents. Second, the theories had general effects across males and females and thus were not gender-specific. Third, because all perspectives earned some empirical support, they might best be seen not as theoretical rivals but as complementary theories that all contribute to our understanding of the sources of substance use among youths. However, given the modest amount of variation explained in the analyses, future research on substance use may benefit from two extensions. First, most studies, including this dissertation, operationalize only parts of theories. The next generation of empirical tests should seek to measure all components of the major theories, thus truly assessing the models' explanatory potential. Second, a truly complete theory of substance use must build upon but not be limited to the major perspectives. Therefore, a need exists to examine the causal impact of factors—such as those unique to women or biological traits that shape conduct from childhood onward—that lie outside the traditional theories of crime.

Committee: Francis Cullen PhD (Committee Chair); Cheryl Lero Jonson PhD (Committee Member); Paula Smith PhD (Committee Member); Pamela Wilcox PhD (Committee Member) Subjects: Criminology

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2012, EDU Policy and Leadership

In a study of 5285 8th graders from the Gang Resistance and Education Training (G.R.E.A.T.) research, this study applied Travis Hirschi's social bonding theory to examine the curriculum's efficacy in increasing conventional bonding (friends with positive peers, succeeding at education etc.) and decreasing non-conventional bonding (drug use, truancy, law violations etc.). The results suggest that across the full models, multiple group models (i.e., receive the G.R.E.A.T. curriculum or not) and models with indirect effects, attachment to parent, education and positive peers is the most consistent construct for increasing youth bonding. In the multiple group model, commitment (i.e., feelings about joining gangs, being involved with gang behavior etc.) is reduced significantly for those youth who received the G.R.E.A.T. curriculum versus those who did not. In the full model, belief about gangs in school, and pressure to join gangs, as well as involvement with delinquent peers and drug using peers are significant constructs for increasing bonding in the full models (with and without indirect effects), but are not significant in the multiple group model. Regarding the latent construct G.R.E.A.T. (i.e., gang knowledge and knowledge about gang influence - selling drugs for power, interfering with goals and neighborhood peace) these variables are consistently significant across models regardless if youth received the G.R.E.A.T. curriculum or not. Regarding the manifest variables, youth use drugs because of peer pressure, and youth use drugs because of low self-esteem, youth view these two factors as consistently salient across all models. Results for bias corrected, resampled confidence intervals for indirect effects on latent constructs suggest that large samples and large resampling (i.e., over 5000) are required for stability of loading estimates.

Committee: Richard G. Lomax PhD (Advisor); Antoinette Errante PhD (Committee Member); Michael Edwards PhD (Committee Member) Subjects: Educational Sociology

Master of Arts (MA), Ohio University, 2007, Sociology (Arts and Sciences)

Work on the social construction of identity has emerged concurrently from different areas, each attempting to explain the plethora of identities present in society. Two such attempts, identity control theory and social identity theory, each attend to different portions of the social identity dynamic. Integration of these two approaches has the potential to increase understanding of interpersonal judgments. Traditionally, work utilizing social identity theory has been examined using a distribution of resources model. For this research evaluations of blame between subjects are examined in order to determine if in-group favoritism and out-group denigration as found in resource distribution studies are present in a post behavior evaluative framework.

Committee: Robert Shelly (Advisor) Subjects:

Master of Social Work, The Ohio State University, 1965, Graduate School

Committee: Not Provided (Other) Subjects:

Master of Science, The Ohio State University, 2008, Graduate School

Committee: Not Provided (Other) Subjects:

Master of Arts, The Ohio State University, 2006, Graduate School

Committee: Not Provided (Other) Subjects:

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2024, Psychology

The present series of studies aimed to explore the relevance of novel leadership prototypes (i.e., autonomous, paternalistic, authoritarian, and laissez-faire) on compliance and pluralistic ignorance in different cultures–Western democracies, a paternalistic society, and an informational autocracy. We recruited participants with part- or full-time jobs who categorized their boss into one of four different leadership prototypes, and then assessed compliance, and pluralistic ignorance with misinformation. Chapter 2 validated these leadership prototypes by demonstrating that people with authoritarian and laissez-faire leaders endorsed more loyalty and nepotism in their organization, and differentiated authoritarian vs. laissez-faire leaders by the frequency of interactions that they have with their subordinates. Chapter 3 demonstrated the relationship between these leadership prototypes on general, public, and private compliance with misinformation, and pluralistic ignorance: People with authoritarian and laissez-faire leaders were more likely to comply with misinformation and believed that their coworkers would be more likely to comply than themselves. We aimed to extend both the leadership literature and the social influence literature by demonstrating that the social forces of controlling leaders are related to people's compliance and pluralistic ignorance about misinformation.

Committee: Steven Spencer (Advisor); Richard Petty (Committee Member); Duane Wegener (Committee Member); Peter Sayer (Committee Member) Subjects: Social Psychology