Honors Theses, Ohio Dominican University, 2012, Honors Theses

Many studies are available on the effects of manipulatives for early childhood settings, but less are available for middle childhood settings. However, using manipulatives is often beneficial for students at any age, grade level, or learning level. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development display that students are not capable of abstract thinking until at least age 11. Students can benefit at any age from the use of manipulatives. However, if not planned for and created with purpose, lessons with manipulatives often have little or no meaning to the intent of the lesson. Manipulatives cannot serve as the lesson, but, rather, as part of a lesson to help students gain a deeper understanding of the topic at hand, mathematics. Manipulatives can be used as a tool to enhance learning, but not be the sole form of learning. This study looks at the use of manipulatives in a 5th grade classroom with two separate classes. Two different non-traditional manipulatives were used: M and M's and playing cards, to study mean, median, and mode.

Committee: Dr. Lisa Douglass (Advisor) Subjects: Education; Mathematics Education

Master of Science (MS), Ohio University, 2023, Clinical Psychology (Arts and Sciences)

It has been well documented that children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have difficulties with peer relationships. There are numerous factors and pathways to peer difficulties that children with ADHD experience. However, the impact of social cognitive skills is relatively understudied yet has been found to be associated with peer difficulties and is a skillset that children with ADHD struggle in developing. Notably, the ability to understand social cause-and-effect may be a uniquely important skill as it is a crucial factor in developing social competence. The current study examines 233 children ages 8-10 with and without ADHD who completed tasks related to understanding cause-and-effect as well as participated in peer play groups to complete peer sociometric ratings. Mediation analyses demonstrated that the ability to understand cause-and-effect was not a significant mediator in the relationship between total ADHD symptoms and peer social functioning. Exploratory analyses, however, demonstrated that when examining a sample of only girls, causal understanding was a significant mediator of the association between hyperactive/impulsive symptoms and peer social functioning when accounting for child age. Additionally, marginally significant mediation of the association between hyperactive/impulsive symptoms and peer social functioning was found in the sample of boys. The results of this study demonstrate that child age and sex may be important factors in the development and importance of social cognitive skills in peer relationships and are important future areas of research.

Committee: Steven W. Evans Ph.D. (Committee Chair); Julie Sarno Owens Ph.D. (Committee Member); Darcey Allan Ph.D. (Committee Member) Subjects: Clinical Psychology; Psychology

Doctor of Education , University of Dayton, 2023, Educational Administration

This study explored how early childhood educators experience compassion fatigue and what the primary triggers of compassion fatigue are. Findings showed that the three primary triggers of compassion fatigue included poor communication, lack of administrative support, and lack of appropriate self-care opportunities. With this information, the study centered on alleviating compassion fatigue through administrative support, specifically through the coordinator role within the early childhood department. The action plan addressed the three main issues with the objectives of implementing a new communication system, monthly self-care stipends, and frequent administrative support through weekly check-ins and in-classroom support. As early childhood educators' compassion fatigue begins to alleviate, the number of call-offs will decrease, burnout will subside, and retention rates will improve (Palladino & et al., 2007). Overall, this action plan provides much-needed support to early childhood educators from administrators and demonstrates the importance of having a role such as a coordinator in early childhood education.

Committee: Elizabeth Essex (Committee Chair); Marilyn Llewellyn (Committee Member); Charles Lu (Committee Member) Subjects: Communication; Early Childhood Education; Education; Educational Leadership; Elementary Education

PHD, Kent State University, 2021, College of Arts and Sciences / Department of Psychological Sciences

Children form attachment bonds to their caregivers; the quality of these bonds are important to children's emotional and social development. Until recently, measurement of parent-child attachment in middle childhood and early adolescence has exclusively relied on representational measures. Two behavioral measures for this age group have shown promise, but there is limited research considering each. This dissertation aimed to evaluate the convergent and discriminant validity of the Middle Childhood Attachment Coding System (MCAS; Brumariu, Giuseppone, et al., 2018), a behavioral measure of parent-child attachment. Participants included 179 parent-child dyads with children aged 9-14 years. Validity evidence was mixed. MCAS patterns showed some associations with a questionnaire measure of attachment security but were unrelated to narrative coherence on an autobiographical interview. MCAS patterns most consistently related to parental autonomy support and were not related to or had a weak pattern of associations with parental sensitivity, the parent's own attachment, and internalizing symptoms. I considered associations of MCAS patterns with variables expected to be unrelated to attachment, most were not significant, providing evidence for discriminant validity. Finally, I compared models, one including MCAS security and one not, of variables theoretically related to attachment to test for unique contributions of MCAS security. Both models had excellent fit. My findings are important to understanding behavioral attachment in middle childhood. I explore potential explanations for the pattern of results and suggest future directions for measuring behavioral attachment in middle childhood.

Committee: Kathryn Kerns (Advisor); Christopher Flessner (Committee Co-Chair); Lique Coolen (Committee Member); Kelly Cichy (Committee Member); Josefina Grau (Committee Member) Subjects: Psychology

Bachelor of Science (BS), Ohio University, 2019, Communication Sciences and Disorders

There is a limited amount of literature examining the relation between emotion comprehension and narrative ability in 7-11-year-old children. The aim of the study was to look at this relation using the Test of Emotion Comprehension (TEC) and the wordless picture book, Tuesday. The TEC examines different levels of emotion comprehension in children ages three to eleven. To study narrative ability, participants narrated the wordless picture book, Tuesday. In addition to these tasks, participants also completed measures of language ability including the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals 5th edition and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test 4th edition. Based on these measurements, it was predicted that children with higher scores on the TEC would produce more complex and productive narratives. It was also predicted that high levels of emotion comprehension would correlate directly with advanced use of mental state terms and causal references. Analyses revealed a significant correlation between age and the mental group of the TEC. Correlational analyses also showed significant relations between causal references and mental state terms and causal references and productivity. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Committee: Joann Benigno (Advisor) Subjects: Behavioral Sciences; Speech Therapy

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2019, EDU Teaching and Learning

Educational technologies have become a component of many classrooms in the 21st century, but the use of technology by beginning teachers is a concern of both educators and researchers. A gap exists between the way in which preservice teachers are taught with technology in their courses and how teachers are expected to use technology for instructional purposes. For decades research has focused on methods of instructional practices that support and improve education for student achievement. Although many studies have been conducted relating to technology, project-based learning, and 21st century learning, limited research exists in a conceptual model to prepare preservice teachers on technology integration, project-based learning, and 21st century learning in a flipped classroom environment. While preparing to teach a course for teacher preparation, a conceptual model was designed for modeling technology integration, project-based learning, and 21st century learning in a flipped classroom environment. The resulting syllabus was constructed around a student-centered, blended learning environment while using the Universal Design of Learning and social emotional learning. The conceptual model for the research includes transformative teaching & learning and technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). This mixed-methods study examined how the nature of preservice teachers' use of technology is impacted in a preparation course in which the instructor modeled technology integration, project-based learning, and 21st century learning in a flipped classroom environment. Questions addressed in the study include: (a) How do preservice teachers engage in using technology, project-based learning, and 21st century learning during the teacher preparation course?; and (b) How do preservice teachers perceive their technological, pedagogical, content, knowledge (TPACK) self-efficacy after completing the teacher preparation course? Triangulation of findings from PT-TPACK s (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Patti Brosnan PhD (Advisor); Mandy Smith PhD (Committee Member); Betty Lise Anderson PhD (Committee Member) Subjects: Early Childhood Education; Education; Educational Technology; Middle School Education; Teacher Education; Teaching; Technology

MA, Kent State University, 2018, College of Arts and Sciences / Department of Psychological Sciences

Research and theory have recognized parenting as a key predictor of parent-child attachment. Research on parenting and attachment has primarily focused on parental sensitivity, but scholars have recently called for the additional investigation of other parenting characteristics, such as autonomy support. Attachment can be considered in terms of safe haven and secure base support. Theoretically, parental sensitivity links most directly to safe haven support and parental autonomy support links most directly to secure base support. I investigated parental sensitivity as a unique predictor of safe haven support and parental autonomy support as a unique predictor of secure base support. Participants included parent-child dyads (N = 92) with children aged 10-14. Parenting was measured observationally from an interaction task and per child report; attachment was measured from an attachment representation interview. Results were mixed. The observational measures were unrelated to attachment measures. Child-reported parental sensitivity was uniquely predictive of safe haven support. Child-reported parental autonomy support was uniquely predictive of secure base support. My findings regarding child report of parenting indicate children's perceptions of parental autonomy support in addition to parental sensitivity are important to understanding the development of parent-child attachment. I explore potential explanations (e.g. conceptual and methodological concerns) for the lack of significant associations with the observational measures.

Committee: Kathryn Kerns Ph.D. (Advisor); Josefina Grau Ph.D. (Committee Member); Manfred van Dulmen Ph.D. (Committee Member); Christopher Flessner Ph.D. (Committee Member) Subjects: Developmental Psychology; Psychology

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Ohio University, 2018, Curriculum and Instruction (Education)

Teacher perceptions of fourth-grade students' readiness to learn Ohio's fourth-grade social studies standards were explored through this sequential explanatory mixed methods study. Implementation of Ohio's new reading policies in the lower elementary may have had an unintended future impact on the teaching of social studies in the upper elementary grades. The implementation of these policies in the third grade continues to increase the marginalization of social studies instruction. If Ohio's third-grade social studies teachers do not explicitly teach the readiness standards, the burden falls to the fourth-grade teachers. Initially, the research focus of this study of the marginalization of social studies in the upper elementary was its potential impact on the readiness of students to successfully pass the fourth grade state-mandated social studies test. However, after the quantitative phase of this study was completed, the Ohio legislature made the decision to eliminate the fourth-grade social studies year-end test. Nonetheless the findings emphasize the importance of strong school-wide social studies curricula across Ohio as well as inform policy makers in states that currently have both reading guarantees and social studies assessments that student readiness has a significant impact on social studies instruction at the next grade level.

Committee: Frans Doppen Dr. (Committee Chair) Subjects: Curriculum Development; Early Childhood Education; Education; Education Policy; Social Studies Education; Teaching

PHD, Kent State University, 2017, College of Arts and Sciences / Department of Psychological Sciences

The supervision partnership was proposed by Waters and colleagues (1991) to be the last of 8 phases of parent-child attachment in late middle childhood. Previous research (Koehn & Kerns, 2015) has proposed that the supervision partnership consists of three components: availability and accessibility, willingness to communicate, and mutual recognition of the other's rights. The goal of the present study was to validate the supervision partnership by measuring the three components more precisely and by investigating the link between the supervision partnership and constructs that have proven to be highly related to attachment, such as parenting and peer competence. Another goal of this study was to compare the supervision partnership to other measures of attachment, including narrative coherence, and to evaluate discriminant validity in relation to temperament and IQ. 92 children ages of 10 to 14 (63% male) and one parent (81 mothers and 11 fathers) attended a laboratory visit, where the children participated in an interview and both responded to questionnaires. Modifications were made to the Friends and Family Interview (Steele & Steele, 2005), Security Scale (Kerns et al., 2001), Parental Monitoring Questionnaire (Stattin & Kerr, 2000) and the Making Decisions Questionnaire (Eccles et al., 1991) to measure the supervision partnership. Parenting questionnaires were administered to both children and parents, peer competence and friendship questionnaires were administered to children, parents, and teachers, and a temperament questionnaire was administered to the in-lab parent. Children also completed a computerized verbal intelligence task. Results indicated that the three components of the supervision partnership were significantly related to each other for both mothers and fathers, both when measured by interview and self-report questionnaires. Results also found that the supervision partnership for both mothers and fathers was related to child reports of parental res (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Kathryn Kerns Ph.D. (Advisor) Subjects: Psychology

Master of Science, The Ohio State University, 2017, Human Ecology: Human Development and Family Science

To understand the roles of parent-child relationships in child adjustment, I examined the trajectories of father-child and mother-child relationship closeness and conflicts, as well as their associations with child depressive symptoms and optimism for boys and girls in middle childhood. Resident mothers and fathers from 685 families reported relationship closeness and conflicts with children across middle childhood at Grades 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6. In each family, one study child reported on his/her depressive symptoms and optimism at Grade 6. Parent-child relationship conflicts increased, whereas closeness decreased across middle childhood, regardless of parental or child gender. Mother-child relationships were characterized as closer but more conflictual than father-child relationships for both boys and girls. After controlling for socioeconomic status (SES), maternal and paternal depressive symptoms, and mother-rated externalizing behaviors and internalizing behaviors at Grade 1, the trajectories of father-child, but not mother-child, conflicts predicted child depressive symptoms at Grade 6, after accounting for the conflicts between child and the other parent. The trajectories of father-daughter closeness predicted girls' but not boys' depressive symptoms after controlling for mother-daughter closeness. The trajectories of both father-child and mother-child closeness predicted boys' and girls' optimism. The findings highlight the important roles of both father-child and mother-child relationships in child adjustment.

Committee: Sarah Schoppe-Sullivan (Advisor); Xin Feng (Committee Member) Subjects: Developmental Psychology; Families and Family Life

Master of Music (MM), Bowling Green State University, 2015, Music Education/Comprehensive Music Education

The purpose of this study was to determine what musical skills and activities undergraduate students studying to be early childhood educators, middle childhood educators, and learning intervention specialists perceived to be the most beneficial for their teaching situations, following their participation in a music fundamentals course, and if a relationship existed between the activities they perceived to be the most beneficial and their previous musical experiences. A total of 29 preservice teachers were surveyed about their previous musical experiences and musical skills and activities from the course curriculum. Global curricular concepts addressed in both courses included (a) singing in the classroom, (b) use of classroom instruments, (c) use of guided music listening activities, (d) introduction and reinforcement of musical elements through instruction in recorder playing and throughout course activities and (e) music lesson planning. A total of eight students were interviewed on a volunteer basis, also regarding their previous musical experiences and musical skills and activities from the course curriculum. The interview data informed the survey data. The survey data were coded, analyzed for themes and the results presented in sections including, (a) previous musical experiences, (b) use of musical activities in the classroom, (c) comfort incorporating musical elements in the classroom and (d) interview data. Overall, preservice early childhood teachers and learning intervention specialists responded that they would be more likely to use music activities in their future classrooms than the preservice middle childhood teachers, with the exception of listening activities. This increases the importance and responsibility of music fundamental courses to include instruction for preservice middle childhood teachers in the incorporation of music activities into their classrooms, and provide understanding of the benefits of incorporating music into their classrooms (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Elizabeth Menard Dr. (Advisor); Sandra Stegman Dr. (Committee Member) Subjects: Music Education

MA, Kent State University, 2014, College of Arts and Sciences / Department of Psychological Sciences

The supervision partnership, which is thought to emerge in middle childhood, has been conceptualized as the last phase of parent-child attachment in childhood. The present study expands upon this idea by proposing three components of this supervision partnership for parent-child dyads. Availability and accessibility is similar to the traditional definition of attachment and captures that the parent is emotionally available to comfort the child; willingness to communicate indicates that both parent and child are willing to discuss their plans, goals, and life events; and mutual recognition of the other's rights, meaning that both the child and the parent recognize that they both have the right to contribute to the decision-making process. Using data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, I derived indices of the three components of the supervision partnership, and related them to attachment assessments from other age periods, as well as to concurrent maternal sensitivity. The current study found that the three components of the supervision partnership were significantly related to one another, to attachment measured in preschool and adolescence, and to maternal sensitivity measured in middle childhood. Each of the three components were significant unique predictors of both adolescent attachment and maternal sensitivity. Collectively, the findings suggest that the concept of the supervision partnership may more fully capture the secure base concept in late middle childhood than traditional approaches that focus only on availability and accessibility.

Committee: Kathryn Kerns Ph.D. (Advisor); Amy Sato Ph.D. (Committee Member); Josefina Grau Ph.D. (Committee Member); Manfred van Dulmen Ph.D. (Committee Member) Subjects: Psychology

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2010, EDU Teaching and Learning

This is a descriptive study that describes the teacher educators that teach the early and middle childhood social studies methods courses in Ohio colleges and universities. The specific purpose of this study was to investigate: 1) How do we know if the teacher educators teaching the early and middle childhood social studies methods courses are grounded in the importance of social studies?, 2) What actions in the early and middle childhood social studies methods course do the early and middle childhood social studies teacher educators in the study describe as advocacy for elementary school social studies?, and 3) How do these teacher educators teach their students to respond to the marginalization of elementary school social studies? The study also focused on identifying ways teacher educators are advocating for elementary social studies in early and middle childhood social studies methods courses in an era when content disciplines are competing for pedagogical time. To collect data the researcher used a survey research design through an on-line data collection service called SurveyMonkey (http://www.surveymonkey.com/). The participant list consisted of 84 teacher educators from 45 Ohio colleges and universities offering an accredited undergraduate teacher preparation program that leads to licensure to teach social studies in elementary school classrooms (grades Kindergarten through five) in the state of Ohio. The questionnaire, titled Advocating for Elementary Social Studies: Where does it Begin?, consisted of two sections: a) Participant Demographics and Background Data and b) Professional Viewpoints. The researcher used a five-step process to increase response rate; 51 responses (61%) was collected. The statistical package used to perform the data analysis in this study was the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 17 for Windows. The study includes implications for Teacher Preparation Programs and recommendations for further research of early (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Cynthia Tyson (Advisor); Charles Hancock (Committee Member); Barbara Seidl (Committee Member) Subjects: Education; Elementary Education; Social Studies Education; Teacher Education

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2010, ED Teaching and Learning (Columbus campus)

This study investigates how students in third-, fourth- and fifth-grade classes at a rural school are socially constituted as “struggling readers,” and how this social status impacts reading achievement. It examines the ways that some students are positioned as inferior readers in relation to their classmates during peer-to-peer literacy events. Findings show that students take up the positioning and develop ways of acting in relation to reading and other students. As individuals in the social group come to understand the position they occupy within a social space, they take on attitudes, dispositions and practices – a habitus - that over time becomes relatively durable by becoming naturalized and expected by both the student and others in his or her social space. Findings show that the label and position of “struggling reader” has consequences for the student's academic achievement, social relationships and emotional well-being. Building on theoretical work in sociolinguistic ethnography, New Literacy Studies, discourse analysis and educational research examining the use of language in classrooms, this study uses microethnographic discourse analysis to generate grounded theoretical constructs related to how students in the middle childhood age range are socially constituted as struggling readers. Findings indicate that the organization of literacy instruction creates social spaces where students hierarchically position one another in peer-to-peer interactions based on definitions of reading and knowledge and on reading assessments used by the school system. Students take up and adopt a habitus that fulfills the expectations of the assigned social position. Findings show that conceptions of time are implicated in constituting a struggling reader. As the group creates a set of collective memories and develops a narrative related to a student's future based on literacy ability, the student's inferior social position becomes naturalized and impacts their relations with (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: David Bloome PhD (Advisor); Leslie Moore PhD (Committee Member); Jan Nespor PhD (Committee Member); Elaine Richardson PhD (Committee Member) Subjects: Literacy

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2007, Teaching and Learning

This research explored the status of the roles, responsibilities, and practices of the university supervisors who served the middle childhood preservice teacher candidates in the state of Ohio. Survey results were collected from 36 colleges and universities. On-site visits were held during the end of the student teaching term at one small private college, one medium sized private university, and one large public university. The survey results indicated that 64% of the supervisors were required to perform a pre-observation conference with their preservice teacher candidate, while 97% were required to perform a post-observation conference. A little more than half (56%) of the supervisors were required to visit their preservice teacher candidate in the field weekly, while 89% were expected to submit the preservice teacher candidates' final student teaching grade. On-site visitations helped to gain information regarding the nature of supervision for the middle childhood preservice teacher candidates. It was determined that the supervisors had variable supervisory training. Although each of the case-study supervisors was required to use the PATHWISE Observational System, only two of the supervisors received formal PATHWISE training. The on-site visitations revealed that the supervisor and preservice teachers were not necessarily matched according to content area of expertise. This lack of content match resulted in the supervisors giving superficial feedback that was not specific to content area pedagogy. The main strength of the supervisors' services included that they were a support system for the preservice teachers.

Committee: Patricia Scharer (Advisor) Subjects:

Master of Science (MS), Ohio University, 2010, Family Studies (Health and Human Services)

India is currently experiencing a societal metamorphosis as Westernization is impacting many aspects of daily life. This is particularly true in the area of health care where traditionally Western diseases are becoming wide spread, making Western medicine necessary for treatment. This qualitative study explored how East Indian mothers and their children, ages 6 to 12 years, negotiate their health care, family relationships, and cultural contexts when children are hospitalized with chronic illness. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with mother-child dyads (N = 5 dyads) who were natives of East India receiving care from a major hospital in Bangalore, India. Bowen's family systems theory guided the design and analysis of this study. Findings underscore tensions within families as a result of utilizing Westernized health care in the context of family health cultures. These tensions revealed how individuals based on their education levels and traditional beliefs understood and communicated health differently. Research findings have implications for how child life specialists can better serve patients and families in a culturally sensitive manner.

Committee: Margaret Manoogian PhD (Advisor); Jennifer Chabot PhD (Other); Nagesh Rao PhD (Other) Subjects: Families and Family Life; Health Care

PHD, Kent State University, 2012, College of Education, Health and Human Services / School of Teaching, Learning and Curriculum Studies

Effective teaching in the United States over the last decade has been based on student performance on standardized tests (Darling-Hammond, 2010). Many school districts, in attempts to make gains on standardized assessments, have implemented standardized formative assessment procedures that dictate intervention for students not making gains (Popham, 2011). It is my contention that in some cases, standardized formative assessment procedures have negated authentic formative assessments where teachers interpret any classroom activity, such as observation, teacher-student conversation, and teacher-student interaction, to adjust instruction to ensure that all students are making progress. I believe that there are two specific problems associated with standardized formative assessment: standardized formative assessments may not honor nor cultivate the teacher-student relationship inherent in transactional relationships (Ryan, 2011) and may not allow teachers flexibility of method to solve classroom-based problems in a practical way (Schwab, 1970). The purpose of this action research study was to describe the pedagogical strategies of an authentic formative assessment process my classroom. This study also explored how an authentic process can be a viable alternative to a standardized one within one classroom. Three major findings are present from the study: multiple strategies could be used to determine curricular needs for students; authentic formative assessments could honor and cultivate teacher-student relationships; classroom life was improved for me and my students when rigorous investigation into the assessment practices of the classroom were explored.

Committee: James G. Henderson Ed.D. (Committee Co-Chair); Teresa Rishel PhD (Committee Co-Chair); Averil McClelland PhD (Committee Member) Subjects: Curriculum Development; Education; Educational Tests and Measurements; Middle School Education

PHD, Kent State University, 2009, College of Arts and Sciences / Department of Psychological Sciences

The purpose of this study was to examine pathways from early mother-child attachment to pre-adolescent friendship. A subsample (n=1,140) of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care was used to examine both emotion regulation and peer competence as mediators of the relations between mother-child attachment and peer relationships (peer competence and friendship). It was expected that mother-child attachment at three years of age, and mother-child attachment at fifth grade would be related to peer competence at fifth grade and friendship at sixth grade. Attachment at three years of age was related to peer competence, and attachment at fifth grade was related to peer competence and friendship. It was also expected that the associations between mother-child attachment at three years and peer competence at fifth grade (and friendship at sixth grade) would be mediated by emotion regulation at third grade. Emotion regulation was found to be an intervening variable between attachment at three years and peer competence; however, this indirect effect was not significant in the overall model. In addition, it was expected that the associations of mother-child attachment at three years and attachment at fifth grade with friendship at sixth grade would be mediated by peer competence at fifth grade. Peer competence did not serve as an intervening variable between attachment and peer relationships. Further, it was expected that peer competence at third grade would uniquely predict peer competence at fifth grade (and friendship at sixth grade), after controlling for mother-child attachment at age three. Third grade peer competence was found to uniquely predict fifth grade peer competence and friendship, even after controlling for attachment. The findings suggest directions for future research on mediators of the attachment-peer link. This study can inform efforts to explain individual differences in friendship and also has implications for peer relationship interventions.

Committee: Kathryn Kerns PhD (Advisor) Subjects: Developmental Psychology