DNP, Kent State University, 0, College of Nursing

Burnout remains a significant problem in nursing staff around the world. Current research posits that critical care units have some of the highest rates of burnout with an urgent need for resiliency training to decrease burnout. Resilience training is a crucial intervention for critical care staff to promote well-being and reduce burnout symptoms. The purpose of this project was to determine if a four-hour resilience class that focused on emotional intelligence, self-care, resiliency, and art therapy decreased burnout symptoms in critical care nursing staff. The study was quasi-experimental with a pretest-post-test design and included a nonequivalent control group. Participants were recruited from critical care units at a large Level I Trauma hospital in Northeast Ohio. Inclusion criteria included part or full time English-speaking critical care staff. The Maslach Burnout Inventory (Cronbach's coefficient alpha: 0.90 for Emotional Exhaustion, 0.79 for Depersonalization, and 0.1 for Person Accomplishment) was offered at the beginning of the training (n= 90) and again ¬¬six weeks after training (n= 24). Demographics collected included job position, age, gender, years in current position, years in critical care, plans to leave the organization or healthcare in the next five years, and highest education level. A paired t test was used to evaluate if participants' burnout symptoms decreased after resilience training. There was not sufficient power to detect a significant difference in the research questions apart from one question; an unexpected outcome was the increase in depersonalization symptoms from the pre intervention to post intervention group. This may be explained by the study taking place during COVID and staffing challenges. Other findings showed that critical care nursing staff at this organization have worse burnout symptoms than those of the general population of workers in human services professions. Nursing staff who plan to leave the organization in the (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Dana Hansen (Advisor); Amy Petrinec (Committee Chair); Kimberly Cleveland (Committee Chair) Subjects: Education; Health; Health Care; Nursing

Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.), Franklin University, 2019, Business Administration

The purpose of this research was to explore why some agents can experience thriving in a call center. The intended outcome was to determine what could be gleaned and used for the development of interventions that organizations could implement to improve the conditions for thriving to be experienced. Existing research indicated that for thriving to be experienced, vitality and learning had to occur in concert (Porath et al., 2012). The high call volumes, compounded by continuous multi-tasking and emotional labor can be exhausting work (Molino et al., 2016; U.S. Contact Center, 2016; Valle & Ruz, 2015; Zhan, Wang, & Shi, 2016). This high emotional labor was observed as one of the leading causes of burnout, resulting high rates of turnover (Abid et al., 2015, 2016; Molino et al., 2016). Call center agents are required to perform the functions of active listening, demonstrating empathy, typing/documenting, navigating systems, formulating responses, de-escalating emotionally-charged customers, and moving the calls forward quickly and repetitively (Jacobs & Roodt, 2011; Molino et al., 2016; U. S. Contact Center, 2016). How the study participants felt, learned, and managed the demands of the job and still experienced levels of thriving in the emotionally-charged venue of the call center environment were explored. The results of the qualitative research revealed two over-arching attributes among the study participants that seemed to have caused their ability to experience thriving – transformational learning and heedful relating. Breaking these two elements down into chunks, five critical elements that contributed to thriving at work in the call center were observed and translated into actionable interventions for future use in call center organizations. The five elements of focus were (a) sense-making; (b) heedful relationships; (c) managing the emotions of self and others; (d) learning styles; and (e) organizational culture.

Committee: Timothy Reymann Ph.D. (Committee Chair); Tami Moser Ph.D. (Committee Member); Michelle Geiman Ph.D. (Committee Member) Subjects: Management; Organizational Behavior

MA, University of Cincinnati, 2017, Arts and Sciences: Psychology

Stress is a detrimental issue that is costly on many fronts for both employees and businesses. A large body of research has examined stress in the workplace and how it may impact employees but minimal work has been done regarding emotion regulation and ways that identity can buffer this stress and spread among coworkers. Specifically, employees in high stress (emotional labor) jobs were examined such as social workers who are defined in this way because of the great deal of face to face contact required with clients. An extreme type of stress called emotional exhaustion is also related to these jobs. Those in these roles tend to display emotion inconsistent with internally felt emotions (surface acting) and can also engage in deep acting where those emotions are consistent. One way to buffer stress may be through identifying with one's job role or occupational identity (OI) because of how identification may be similar to deep acting and has been shown to make work feel more meaningful. Research has examined identity in the workplace and its relation to reduced stress and burnout, however no research has examined this through the lens of emotional labor and if this feeling of OI can spread. This cross sectional research utilized a survey to measure relationships between OI, emotional labor, and exhaustion. Responses were analyzed using multiple regression and showed a positive relationship between OI and emotional exhaustion which may be caused by over identification. An interaction of OI between emotional labor and emotional exhaustion was not found. However, there was partial support for the hypothesis regarding no relationship between deep acting and emotional exhaustion. There was also partial support for OI spread. Implications for further research and business practices are discussed.

Committee: Stacie Furst-Holloway Ph.D. (Committee Chair); Donna Chrobot-Mason Ph.D. (Committee Member); Erinn Green Ph.D. (Committee Member) Subjects: Psychology

Doctor of Philosophy, University of Akron, 2014, Psychology-Industrial/Organizational

This research sought to provide a detailed understanding of emotional dissonance, or the discrepancy between feelings and displays, as it relates to emotional exhaustion and psychological vitality. This was the first study to examine dissonance as it is defined by modeling feelings and displays as separate constructs and to differentiate between different experiences of dissonance. All hypotheses were tested using a large archival dataset collected using experience sampling methodology, which included 250 call center employees who rated consumer interactions approximately 3 times per day over the course of 10 work days. This research provides three overarching contributions to the emotional labor literature. First, modeling dissonance using domain-specific (i.e., positive and/or negative) felt and displayed emotions provided an enhanced understanding of the relationship between well-being and dissonance. In particular, the influence of congruent feelings and displays (i.e., no dissonance) on well-being was influenced by the intensity of those emotions, thus suggesting that not all situations without dissonance are equally healthy. Second, dissonance predicted well-being above and beyond feelings and displays (each of which also had unique relationships with well-being). Third, this research leveraged polynomial regression and three-dimensional response surface methodology to extend our knowledge of the nature and effects of emotional dissonance in customer service situations.

Committee: James Diefendorff Dr. (Advisor); Paul Levy Dr. (Committee Member); Andrea Snell Dr. (Committee Member); Jennifer Stanley Dr. (Committee Member); Maria Hamdani Dr. (Committee Member) Subjects: Organizational Behavior; Psychology; Quantitative Psychology; Statistics

Doctor of Philosophy, University of Akron, 2007, Psychology-Industrial/Organizational

The goal of the current study was to test and extend Grandey's (2000) model of emotional labor by investigating the antecedents and outcomes of emotional labor. Specifically, the study presented and tested a model in which display rule perceptions were antecedents to emotional labor (i.e., surface and deep acting), which in turn led to emotional exhaustion, performance, and turnover. In addition, it was proposed that POS would moderate the relationship between display rules and emotional labor such that individuals that perceive they are supported by their organization would be more likely to conform to display rules via surface or deep acting. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that LMX would buffer the negative effects of surface acting on emotional exhaustion. Path analyses indicated that display rule perceptions to express positive emotions were positively related to deep acting and negatively related to surface acting. Conversely, display rule perceptions to suppress negative emotions were positively related to surface acting and not related to deep acting. In addition, surface acting was positively related to emotional exhaustion. However, contrary to the proposed hypotheses, LMX did not moderate the surface acting-emotional exhaustion relationship. Perceived organizational support was found to moderate several relationships between display rule perceptions and acting strategies, and contributes to the limited work on motivation to comply with display rules. Results also suggested that emotional labor was tied to actual turnover behaviors, such that surface acting was positively related to turnover intentions, which in turn led to actual turnover behaviors six months later. Implications, future research, and limitations are discussed.

Committee: Paul Levy (Advisor) Subjects: Psychology, Industrial

Doctor of Philosophy, University of Akron, 2006, Psychology-Industrial/Organizational

Emotional labor is defined as the effort involved in performing emotional regulation for the purpose of complying with the interpersonal demands required in order to perform a job in an organization. In previous research, emotional labor has been shown to be related to both personal and organizational outcomes. It has been established that of the two forms of emotional labor, surface acting and deep acting, surface acting has a greater negative impact on the individual performer, while deep acting has muted or reversed relationships with these negative personal outcome variables. Previous definitions of emotional labor, however, have left out an important component in the measurement of emotional labor, the perceived difficulty of performing both deep and surface acting. Replicating previous research, in this study of 198 employees in a customer service organization the frequency of performing surface acting positively predicted emotional exhaustion, but the frequency of deep acting was not significantly related to the outcome variable of emotional exhaustion. The new variable of difficulty of performing deep acting was found to be positively related to emotional exhaustion, a previously unexplored relationship. The difficulty of surface acting, however, was not found to be significantly related to emotional exhaustion. In addition to adding difficulty as a component of emotional labor, several dispositional variables were tested as antecedents of emotional labor. Many researchers have proposed dispositional antecedents of emotional labor in the literature, but only a handful have been tested. This study tested gender role identification, positive and negative affectivity, emotional intelligence, agreeableness, and action-state orientation as antecedents of both the frequency and difficulty components of emotional labor. Support was found for relationships between emotional labor and all the dispositional antecedents tested.

Committee: Dennis Doverspike (Advisor) Subjects: Psychology, Industrial

Doctor of Philosophy, University of Akron, 2013, Psychology-Industrial/Organizational

Emotional labor research has a long-standing tradition of utilizing person-level, cross-sectional data when attempting to understand how surface acting and deep acting operate in relation to outcomes such as emotional exhaustion and emotional displays. However, such research designs ignore the possibility of meaningful variance in both surface and deep acting within single performance episodes. To address this, the current call center simulation study utilized continuous rating methodology (e.g., Ruef & Levenson, 2007) to assess three key questions, each of which was a new contribution to the emotional labor literature. The first question assessed the within-episode relationship of surface acting and deep acting to determine whether these two constructs are antipodes, or exclusive and opposing constructs (as indicated by a negative correlation), or if they are positively related such that individuals can engage in both simultaneously (e.g., Beal & Trougakos, 2013). The second question probed the role customers play in shaping employee emotional labor. Specifically, the current study built from previous work (e.g., Cote , 2005; Diefendorff & Gosserand, 2003) to identify how social feedback from customers (i.e., confederate callers) influenced the type of regulation that employees (i.e., participants) utilize. Finally, the last question focused on whether third-party evaluations of within-episode variations in the valence of employee emotionality corresponded to employee reports of specific emotion regulation strategies. In a call center simulation with a sample of undergraduate students, results indicated that collecting continuous, momentary-level assessments offers unique information for emotional labor research. Both surface and deep acting strategies positively covaried with each other over time, though this effect was attenuated depending upon study condition (i.e., service failure, service recovery) and the phase of the performance episode (i.e., when the be (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: James Diefendorff Dr. (Advisor); Steven Ash Dr. (Committee Member); Joelle Elicker Dr. (Committee Member); Rosalie Hall Dr. (Committee Member); Paul Levy Dr. (Committee Member) Subjects: Psychology

Doctor of Education , University of Dayton, 2024, Educational Administration

Burnout has become prevalent in various professional domains, including the field of education. Principals, at the forefront of educational institutions, face immense pressure and responsibilities. Recognizing the importance of addressing burnout, the aim of this study was to contribute to the existing body of research regarding burnout and the six areas of worklife. This study involved the use of a quantitative research approach based on surveys and statistical analyses to determine relationships among demographics, areas of worklife, and burnout levels among Alpine Creek Public Schools (ACPS) principals. A diverse range of demographic factors were considered, including age, gender, educational background, and years of experience. Moreover, the study involved a focus on the six areas of worklife—workload, control, reward, community, fairness, and values—to understand their influence on burnout. The study yielded statistically significant relationships connecting workload, control, and fairness with emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. The data obtained from this study will serve as a valuable resource for ACPS leaders devising an action plan to support principals in the management of their complex jobs. By understanding the underlying factors contributing to burnout, ACPS leaders can implement targeted strategies to alleviate emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and enhance personal accomplishment among principals. These strategies may include workload management, fostering a sense of control, providing adequate rewards and recognition, promoting a supportive community, ensuring fairness, and aligning organizational values with the worklife of principals. By addressing emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and fostering personal accomplishment, ACPS leaders can enhance the worklife experiences of their principals, ultimately benefiting the entire educational system.

Committee: Kevin Kelly Ph.D (Committee Chair); Larry Irvin Ed.D (Committee Member); Meredith Wronowski Ph.D (Committee Member) Subjects: Education

Ph.D., Antioch University, 2023, Antioch New England: Marriage and Family Therapy

The current study is quantitative research that used a web-based survey from multiple religious denominations in the United States to examine the relationships among perceptions of stress, work-family spillover, marital satisfaction, and family functioning of pastors. Emotional exhaustion, hours worked, personal accomplishment, and social support were analyzed as predictors from the work domain. Two measures of spillover were used to evaluate family stressors and enhancers. The stressors and enhancers were tested as mediators between work domain and personal/family life. Life satisfaction, marital satisfaction and family dysfunction were analyzed as outcome variables. The sample included 83 pastors from a convenience sample including 62 males and 21 females, with backgrounds diverse in culture, education, and denomination. Analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS (Version 26), including Pearson's correlations along with regression analysis using PROCESS macro to test for mediation. It was found that social support does increase family enhancers and work-family positive spillover but contrary to predictions, personal accomplishment appeared to impact family life by increasing emotional exhaustion, stressors, and family dysfunctions. Greater incidents of emotional exhaustion and hours worked were found to reduce the incident of enhancers and work-family positive spillover and increase family stressors and work-family negative spillover. Greater incidents of emotional exhaustion were found to reduce marital satisfaction and increase family dysfunctions. This research has practical and clinical implications for pastors, spouses, and children of pastors, educators, family scientists, therapists, and organizations who employ pastors.

Committee: Kevin Lyness PhD (Committee Chair); Lucille Byno PhD (Committee Member); Janet Robertson PhD (Committee Member) Subjects: Families and Family Life; Individual and Family Studies; Mental Health; Occupational Health; Psychotherapy; Therapy

Specialist in Education, Miami University, 2023, School Psychology

Burnout is a widespread concern within the field of school psychology. One potential buffer against burnout is self-compassion. While the relationship between burnout and self-compassion has been studied in other professional fields, there is a lack of research in its application to school psychology. The current study investigated the relationship between the self-ratings of burnout and self-compassion in practicing school psychologists through the Maslach Burnout Inventory—4th Edition: Educator Survey and Self-Compassion Scale—Short Form. Participants included 50 practicing school psychologists in Ohio. Results indicated that total Burnout, Emotional Exhaustion, and Depersonalization were negatively correlated with Self-Compassion. Personal Accomplishment was positively correlated with Self-Compassion. Characteristics of the participants' work environment were also explored. Research limitations and directions for future study are discussed.

Committee: Kristy Brann (Committee Chair); Katy Mezher (Committee Member); Terri Messman (Committee Member) Subjects: Psychology

Psy. D., Antioch University, 2023, Antioch Santa Barbara: Clinical Psychology

This dissertation examined relationships between organizational, supervisory, and coworker relationships and burnout among substance use disorder clinicians in the United States of America. The study (n = 85) was conducted with a convenience sample of 85 substance use disorder clinicians. The online survey collected quantitative data and contained demographic questions, as well as four complete measures: the Maslach Burnout Inventory - Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS), Manchester Clinical Supervision Scale (MCSS-26), the Coworker Relationship Scale (CRS), and the Areas of Worklife Survey (AWS). Burnout in any profession may have detrimental effects on an individual. Therefore, it is essential to study interventions or procedures to mitigate burnout from occurring. This non-experimental, quantitative, correlational survey followed the conceptual framework and theories of: Maslach and Jackson's (1981b) three-dimensional burnout model; Winstanley's (2000) supervisee perspective of satisfaction with supervision model; Hain's (2005) quality coworker relationships model; and Leiter's job-fit congruence model (Leiter & Maslach, 1999). Results of the survey were analyzed using correlations and linear regression. Strong correlations were found between emotional exhaustion (using the MBI-HSS) and the predictor variables of the supervisory relationship (MCSS-26), coworker relationships (CRS), and work environment (AWS). Moreover, linear regression showed a strong correlation between the Community domain of the AWS and Emotional Exhaustion. Conclusions indicate a need for further study of the coworker and supervisory relationships in relation to Emotional Exhaustion and Burnout for substance use disorder clinicians and professionals. The knowledge to be gained by exploring these relationships to burnout directly translates to any work environment with coworkers and may foster more positive work environments with less burnout. This dissertation is available in open access at AURA (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Sandra Kenny PhD, MBA (Committee Chair); Lynn Dhanak PhD (Committee Member); Peter Claydon PhD (Committee Member) Subjects: Behaviorial Sciences; Counseling Psychology; Mental Health; Psychology

Doctor of Philosophy, University of Akron, 2021, Counselor Education and Supervision

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between spiritual well-being and burnout, examining general self-efficacy and resilience as mediators of this relationship among substance use disorder (SUD) counselors. Data were collected in September through October of 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Seven hundred and fourteen SUD counselors across the United States completed a web-based survey including four instruments: the Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS), the Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES), the Connor-Davison Resilience Scale 10 (CD-RISC 10), the Maslach Burnout Inventory–Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS), and a demographic questionnaire. Structural equation modeling was used to investigate the relationships among the variables. Spiritual well-being was a statistically significant predictor of general self-efficacy, resilience, and burnout. General self-efficacy was not a significant predictor of burnout. Resilience was found to be a statistically significant partial mediator of the relationship between spiritual well-being and burnout. Limitations and recommendations for future research on spiritual well-being and burnout among SUD counselors were discussed.

Committee: Varunee Faii Sangganjanavanich (Committee Chair) Subjects: Counseling Education

Ph.D., Antioch University, 2021, Leadership and Change

In the first quarter of 2020, societal upheavals related to the COVID-19 pandemic included employers' work-from-home mandates and an almost overnight adoption of video meetings to replace in-person meetings no longer possible due to contagion fears and social distancing requirements. This exploratory study aimed to address, in part, the scientific knowledge gap about video meetings as a source of emotional labor. The study used mixed methods to explore three hypotheses concerning how the contemporary use of video meetings related to emotional exhaustion, stressors, and coping. Data were gathered through an online survey questionnaire. Emotional exhaustion, the dependent variable in the study, was measured using the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Schaufeli et al., 1996) General Survey emotional exhaustion subset of items. Stressors measured included surface acting, which was measured using items adapted from Grandey's (2005) scale. Coping was measured by perceptions about coping resources and cognitive coping. Socio-demographic characteristics served as control variables. Open-ended items produced data pertaining to emotional exhaustion, stressors, and coping related to video meetings. After data cleaning, the sample comprised 345 (n = 345) cross-sector professionals working for U.S.-based organizations. Findings based on a series of linear regression analyses and qualitative data thematic analysis showed video meeting hours and surface acting significantly related to a higher level of emotional exhaustion. Extrovertism, nonwork video gatherings, and social support from another adult in the home were nonsignificant in their relationships with emotional exhaustion. Perceptions that video meetings were too many for participants to accomplish their overall job responsibilities were significantly related to a higher emotional exhaustion level. Perceptions that video meetings were useful to the participant significantly related to a lower emotional exhaustion level. Perceptio (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Elizabeth Holloway PhD (Committee Chair); J. Beth Mabry PhD (Committee Member); Michael Valentine PhD (Committee Member); Emily Axelrod MSW (Other) Subjects: Behavioral Psychology; Behavioral Sciences; Business Community; Business Education; Cognitive Psychology; Communication; Management; Occupational Health; Occupational Psychology; Organizational Behavior; Personal Relationships; Social Psychology; Social Research; Social Structure; Sociology; Systems Design

Doctor of Philosophy, Case Western Reserve University, 2019, Organizational Behavior

Organizational researchers have long had an interest in how employees informally seek and help in organizations. While some helping in organizations occurs by both a willing helper (e.g., proactive helping) and target (help-seeking behavior), limited research has focused on helping behavior involving reluctant helpers and help targets. Dyadic forms of proactive helping, such has interpersonal helping, will only lead to desired organizational outcomes if employees accept their coworkers' offers to help. Past research has found that reluctant help targets (employees with reservations about accepting discretionary workplace help) tend to receive worse supervisor evaluations of job performance and receive less support and help from their coworkers, but no research has explored explanations (i.e. mediators) for this negative relationship. Understanding why reluctant help targets perform worse at work is important because without accepting help, employees may fail at managing their self-regulation and improvement and, thus job performance. In this dissertation, I build theory to support the notion that a reluctance to accept help leads to workplace stress and, in turn, decreased levels of employee job performance. Using job demands-resources theory, I hypothesize and find support that the negative relationship between reluctant help targets and multiple dimensions of employee job performance is mediated (individually and in tandem) by two work stressors: role overload and emotional exhaustion. These findings provide important contributions to the helping behavior literature including (1) comparing and contrasting reluctant help-seeking and reluctant help targets; (2) demonstrating that being reluctant to accept help begins a resource depletion process which leaves employees overburdened, emotionally exhausted and, in turn, inadequate resources to meet job demands in order to achieve adequate job performance. Future research directions are also discussed.

Committee: John Paul Stephens Ph.D. (Advisor); Diana Bilimoria Ph.D. (Committee Member); Melvin Smith Ph.D. (Committee Member); Casey Newmeyer Ph.D. (Committee Member) Subjects: Management; Organizational Behavior; Psychology

Master of Science (MS), Ohio University, 2013, Industrial/Organizational Psychology (Arts and Sciences)

The subject of employee turnover continues to attract global research attention (Hom, Mitchell, Lee, & Griffeth, 2012). The job demands-control-support model (JDC(S); Karasek & Theorell, 1990) is a conceptual model that can be used to examine the stress-strain-turnover process. To date, however, only one study has examined this process (De Croon, Blonk, Broersen, & Frings-Dresen, 2004). Because there are several theoretical and methodological issues apparent with this study, the present study represents a revised and extended version of De Croon et al. (2004). A sample of 443 employees of a large national insurance company answered a survey at two six-month time periods, measuring actual voluntary turnover six months later. Although the correlation matrix supported the hypothesized bivariate relationships, a structural equation model showed poor fit to the data, and the reversal of two relationships in the model. Believing this was due to multicollinearity, I examined a revised model which better fit the data, and supported all nine hypotheses. Furthermore, psychological strain in the form of job dissatisfaction and emotional exhaustion fully mediated the relationship between stress (demands, control, and support), and voluntary turnover. Research and managerial implications are discussed.

Committee: Rodger Griffeth (Committee Chair); Peggy Zaccola (Committee Member); Paula Popovich (Committee Member) Subjects: Business Administration; Business Costs; Organization Theory; Organizational Behavior; Psychology

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Bowling Green State University, 2013, Psychology/Industrial-Organizational

Abusive supervision refers to an employee's perceptions of negative interactions with one's supervisor that are threatening in a non-physical way. Abusive supervision has been shown to have a negative impact on the individual as well as the organization. However, there is little known about how the social context in which abuse might occur can influence the relationship between abusive supervision and outcome variables. This study proposed to look at how group-level perceptions of supervisor behaviors moderate the relationship between individual level perceptions of abuse and individual level experiences of strain such as physical and psychological health, emotion exhaustion and job satisfaction. Group-level perceptions were predicted to act as a buffer and reduce the negative impact of abusive supervision on individual level outcomes. Groups where there may be a lack of/ low group-level perceptions of abusive supervision, the relationship between abusive supervision and individual level outcomes was expected to be stronger. Data were collected from 43 groups of employees with a final N of 172. Hierarchical Linear Modeling and regression analyses were conducted and the results revealed that there was not enough variability between groups for the moderation effects to be significant. Individual level abusive supervision significantly predicted the individual level outcomes, except in the case of job satisfaction. Since the cross-level analyses using HLM were not significant, moderation analyses were conducted using OLS regression. The moderation analyses were significant only in the case of physical health symptoms and the results were not in the expected direction. Potential explanations for the results and future directions are discussed.

Committee: Steve M. Jex PhD (Advisor); Mike Zickar PhD (Committee Member); William O'Brien PhD (Committee Member); Mary E. Benedict PhD (Committee Member) Subjects: Behavioral Psychology; Behavioral Sciences; Behaviorial Sciences; Management; Occupational Health; Occupational Psychology; Psychology; Social Psychology; Social Research