Master of Arts, The Ohio State University, 2019, Slavic and East European Studies

Music has always played an important role during war, both societally and practically – from drums to keep the soldiers marching together, to trumpets announcing the arrival of friends or foes, to the first war where nations had the ability to electronically transmit music. Though music had long been used as propaganda, due to developments in radio broadcasting World War II was the first war in which music was easily distributed on the air to millions. Music can bring us together, it can give rise to any emotion, or it can be the vehicle for ideologies that can encourage or subdue the masses. During WWII, American and Soviet composers, singers, soldiers, and common people all wrote songs about life, love, battle, leaving or being left, and about crushing a common foe. In both countries, these songs were written by people who wished to inspire the masses with their patriotism. The use of music to convey patriotic messages reveals interesting differences between the ideologies of the USA and the USSR, but it also reveals a multitude of similarities in content and context. In my paper, I explore the history behind the songs in question, their musical attributes and how these attributes are typically interpreted, and how the American and Soviet concepts of patriotism were remarkably similar in the war to end all wars, as reflected in some of the most popular American and Soviet war songs.

Master of Arts (MA), Ohio University, 2015, History (Arts and Sciences)

The Philippines lay in the middle of Japanese shipping lanes to the Dutch East Indies, a region that provided them with the oil necessary to keep their navy at sea. Japanese possession of the Philippines ensured them not only access to such shipping lanes, but also unrestricted communication with Tokyo. Allied command GHQ SWPA began maneuvering to sever this linkage. As this thesis will argue, there was already an effective local guerilla intelligence network in existence before the war, having been maintained by the guerrilla groups that emerged.The effectiveness of these existing channels and the guerrillas as operatives was illustrated by the speed with which information began to flow back to Australia once these networks were aligned under the Philippine Regional Section. The volume of material produced, of their own volition, while the guerillas unable to maintain reliable contact with GHQ in early 1942, as well as their maintenance of the networks through the war is evidence that the intelligence shared between Filipino guerrilla districts and GHQ was a mutually beneficial endeavor. The PRS provided the communications apparatus to link these movements, but they themselves did not control or muster the forces necessary to operate it with the islands. It was the intelligence provided by the guerillas and the Coastwatch stations they supported that provided information crucial to an American reinvasion of the Philippine Archipelago. Without the intelligence gathered by the resistance, American forces would have been operating without a precise understanding of enemy positions during battles like Leyte, making any attempt to retake the islands difficult, if not far too risky to be sold to the high command. Despite General MacArthur's selective use of guerilla reports, often favoring the discoveries of signals intelligence, at each crucial stage of operations, Filipino guerrilla reports alerted Allied forces outside the Philippines to minute changes in enemy positi (open full item for complete abstract)

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2005, History

The Anglo-American bombing campaigns against Germany during the world wars relied on air intelligence for targeting information and bomb damage assessment (BDA) reports. These gave airmen insights on the effectiveness of bombing. Air intelligence emerged as a new specialty during the Great War. By 1918, an intellectual infrastructure with organizational and technological components had developed in the British and American air arms. The organizational elements included air staffs with intelligence specialists who provided BDA reports to senior airmen, and unit-level intelligence sections to assess the effects of individual bombing raids. The technologies included reconnaissance aircraft and cameras to collect photographs on the effects of bombing. Although bombing and BDA remained rudimentary in 1918, they set a precedent for World War II. During the interwar period, despite organizational retrenchment, technology, especially cameras, made rapid advances. In addition, the emergence of a strategic bombing doctrine and a heavy bomber, the B-17, in the U.S., heralded the arrival of a mature bombing capability. In Great Britain, the threat of war prompted leaders to begin rebuilding their BDA intellectual infrastructure. Although early British bombing was ineffective, it allowed BDA experts to learn their trade. The combination of new BDA organizations and advanced technologies resulted in superb BDA. Once American air intelligence personnel began arriving in 1942, an Anglo-American intellectual infrastructure emerged. After the Allies gained air supremacy, bombers engaged in three campaigns of decisive importance for Allied victory, first against French and Belgian railroads to isolate Normandy from German reinforcements and re-supply, then against Germany's oil industry, and finally against Germany's transportation networks. BDA experts gave airmen accurate insights on the effectiveness of these campaigns. The first campaign played a vital role in the collapse of Germ (open full item for complete abstract)

Master of Arts, The Ohio State University, 2023, History

John M. Sant was a World War II bomber co-pilot who was shot down over German-occupied Czechoslovakia in 1944. He and the other eight surviving crew members were captured and sent to Stalag Luft I, a German prison camp near the Baltic Sea. Sant spent the next ten months in captivity, keeping a logistical journal of his daily life in the camp. With this journal, along with primary documents, copies of declassified military paperwork, and a typed account of Sant's narrative located in the Skinner Personal Archive as a chronological framework, this thesis constructs a biographical narrative of Sant's life and wartime experiences. Sant's journal provided an indirect glimpse into his inner thoughts. His entries reflect a fear of being overlooked, both during captivity and following release. Sant found solace in escapism through literature and reminisced about home life, emphasizing the importance of morale and interpersonal connections among the POWs. Elements of optimism infuse the passages he chose to copy down, showing his enduring belief in the strength of the Allied forces. The journal also served as a covert way to challenge the authority of the main camp authorities. Sant's hopefulness played a crucial role in maintaining his emotional well-being, a theme more prominent in his post-war writings. The arrival of new prisoners, while disheartening, meant access to more current information. Sant's diary entries not only reflect his emotional state regarding his fellow POWs but also his reaction to news like General Patton's progress in Europe, offering him temporary relief from worries about America's military effectiveness. His aspirations for post-war life served as a comfort and a way to look forward to a future beyond the uncertainty of war. The journal also played a key role in asserting Sant's sense of self-determination under the strict confines of his POW status. While it contained no information unknown to his captors, it provided him with a sense of con (open full item for complete abstract)

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2023, History

This dissertation seeks to unearth the inherent complexity of relations among evangelical missionaries, their filial churches, Catholics, and secular actors in the context of Protestantism's precipitous rise in Brazil between the 1910s and 1960s. It argues that American Protestant missionaries proved to be crucial agents of cultural change who successfully imparted to their Brazilian believers facets of their anti-Communist, paternalistic, and intermittently apolitical ideologies over the course of several systems of government, including two dictatorships. Crucially, this dissertation situates missionaries as intersectional, transnational, and non-state actors within the larger framework of U.S.-Brazilian religiopolitics, cultural transfusion, and the construction of gender, economic, and racial norms. Although far from passive recipients of American evangelical ideas, Brazil's newly-converted Protestants embraced U.S. missionaries' thought to a considerable extent, thereby cementing the incisive cultural change that American missionaries had sought to foster in Brazil. In doing so, Brazilian church workers and leaders refashioned U.S. norms of evangelicalism while also increasingly advocating for the nationalization (indigenization) of evangelical denominations. Basing itself on four case studies of U.S.-founded or influenced evangelical churches, this dissertation unravels the many contradictions and complications inherent to U.S. missionary work in Brazil. These factors include Brazilian evangelicals' wavering between apoliticism and political activism, a vying for influence with the Catholic Church, the legacy of Jim Crow and its consequences to mission work in Brazil, as well as a series of intra-church disputes that ultimately resulted in the nationalization (indigenization) of each church. At the core of the evangelical experience between the 1910s and 1960s stood an identitarian quest to gain legitimacy among Brazil's secular and religious authoritie (open full item for complete abstract)

Master of Arts, The Ohio State University, 2023, East Asian Studies

This thesis discusses the role of the gold standard in Japan's shift to militarism in the 1930s. Since its adoption in Japan in 1897, the gold standard and the price stability inherent in it had advantaged Japanese creditors and helped them finance Japan's empire in Asia. At home, however, the gold standard generated deflation and prevented the Bank of Japan from responding to economic turmoil with interest rate decreases. Japan's ill-advised return to gold in January 1930—amidst a recession—caused the nationalist and fiscally expansionist Rikken Seiyukai party to gain the upper hand in public opinion over the liberal internationalist and fiscally conservative Rikken Minseito party. This economic miscalculation was a major—perhaps the major—reason for the overwhelming loss of the liberal internationalists in the 1932 elections, setting Japan on its path to militarism. The paper begins with an outline of the history of money in Japan prior to 1897, using Japanese-language materials from the Japanese Currency Museum in Tokyo. Next, it provides a theoretical description of the gold standard and its variants and follows the history of the gold standard in Japan from its adoption in 1897 through 1932. It ends with an analysis of the interaction between the economic situation in the late 1920s and early 1930s and the shift to militarism in Japanese politics at that time.

Master of Arts (MA), Wright State University, 2023, History

From 1938 until the end of World War II, the Curtiss P-40 fighter participated in the European, North Africa, and Pacific theaters of war. An aircraft's success depends primarily upon the pilot's expertise. Without skilled pilots, technology alone cannot win a war. Technological innovation still plays a crucial role in the success of a nation's air force. Relative to technological developments, how impactful is a pilot's skill on a fighter plane's performance? My thesis structure is a deep look into each pilot's experience and how victory was achieved with a plane that most military writings say is inferior. I investigate the narrative of the aircraft from development based on a pre-war U.S. air doctrine, its exposure and adaptation against enemy aircraft, and the period when piston-driven aircraft performance reached the pinnacle of performance. My analysis shows that due to the adaptability of tactics by fighter pilots, the Curtiss P-40 met Allied needs and aided in the overall contribution to changes in aerial combat. This write-up goes on to show a pilot's expertise plays a crucial role in an aircraft's success, regardless of statistical data or the purpose for which the plane was intended. Technological innovation causes an impact on the success of a nation's air force, but without skilled pilots, technology alone cannot win a war.

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2022, History

This dissertation examines the rehabilitation and education of Polish Jewish children after the Holocaust. It argues that schools, summer camps, and children's homes in Poland were national and international sites for the rehabilitation of child survivors; therefore, they served as laboratories and arenas for debates regarding Polish Jewry's future. By comparing Zionist and non-Zionist institutions of child care, I illustrate how educators and caregivers engaged with competing ideologies to create normalcy in the best interests of the children. Rehabilitation was not just physical or mental; it required Jewish children to develop skills that would make them independent and good citizens. What did they study? What did they read? Did they learn Yiddish or Hebrew in school? Did they speak Polish in the classroom? The answers to these questions have broader implications regarding the reconstruction of Jewish communities in Poland after the Holocaust. While Jewish communists and Bundists in the Central Committee of Jews in Poland (Centralny Komitet Zydow w Polsce, CKZP) desperately fought to keep Jewish children in Poland, Zionist organizations saw no future for Jews in Poland. Through an analysis of correspondences, meeting minutes, educator conference programs, lesson plans, children's own writing, memoirs, and interviews gathered through multi-sited archival research, this dissertation exposes tension between organizations and traces how the educational and ideological goals of the CKZP Department of Education drastically evolved under the growing influence of Poland's communist government. Ultimately, studying education as a form of rehabilitation and nation-building enhances our understanding of the delicate nature of rebuilding Jewish life after war and genocide.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Ohio University, 2022, History (Arts and Sciences)

This dissertation explores the evolution of organized escape and evasion training in Britain and the United States from its origins during World War II until the latter half of the 1950s. Both nations spent a great deal of time and effort developing, or trying to develop, advanced escape and evasion programs, and these early origins set the course for modern survival, escape, and evasion training programs in both countries. How each nation viewed its air force's mission shaped the evolution of their respective programs, with the United States' Strategic Air Command's becoming well-funded, robust, and responsive to change. SAC adopted the attitude that it was already at war, and that it needed combat ready aircrews who could carry out their missions on very short notice, which drove the organization to keep combat ready crews steeped in escae, evasion, and survival techniques. In the United Kingdom, budgetary and manpower restraints, coupled with a different vision of the Royal Air Force's mission, produced a small, sometimes ad hoc survival, escape, and evasion program. The evolution of organized escape and evasion training in the British and American militaries also reflects continued military and intelligence cooperation between the two nations after World War II, exemplifying another link that binds the two nations together in one of the world's most stable alliances. Finally, the evolution of this training demonstrates continuities between iv American and British ideas about strategic bombing during World War II and the Early Cold War.

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 0, History

My dissertation, “Squaring the Hexagon: Alsace, Algeria and French National Belonging, 1830-1962,” challenges the traditional boundaries between French and African history. I investigate the connections between Alsace and Algeria, two places where the French state struggled to establish sovereignty over inhabitants who spoke, lived, and worshipped in decidedly distinct ways from the rest of France. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, French politicians, government officials, and military commanders viewed their missions of making Alsace and Algeria French — and turning Alsatians and Algerians into Frenchmen — in markedly similar terms, often adapting policies from one region to the other. This entangled history of Alsace and Algeria complicates our understanding of the nature of colonies and regions, revealing the deep connections between empire-building and nation-building.

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2020, History

This dissertation is a global microhistory of 15,000 Jewish refugees who found refuge in Shanghai from Nazi persecution. The Jewish refugees had chosen Shanghai out of necessity and convenience: It was one of the few places in the world in the late 1930s that did not require an entry visa owing to its “open port” status as established by Western Powers in the nineteenth century. Not until after the Second World War and Second Sino-Japanese War ended in 1945 did China reclaim full sovereignty over Shanghai. As part of national reunification efforts, the Chinese demonstrated anti-foreign sentiments to the point of compelling Jewish refugees to seek outside assistance, but not without difficulties beyond Jewish refugees' control. This dissertation explores the dynamics that hampered the Jewish refugees' ability to receive timely humanitarian aid and emigration assistance in the aftermath of Nazism. Specifically, it aims to show how Jews in Shanghai faced the multiple and overlapping forms of discrimination and the ways in which these forms compounded their sense of being unwanted. Told through memoirs, diaries, oral history interviews, correspondences found in organizational and states archives around the world, this story illustrates larger processes associated with the end of a war: the experience of liberation, the development of relief and rehabilitation policies, and the functioning of migration within the modern nation-state system. The dissertation applies insights from the vast scholarship on post-Second World War Europe's humanitarian and refugee crises to Shanghai. In doing so, it uses comparative and transnational approaches to suggest that the history of the Jewish refugees in Shanghai should be understood as a global history of the aftermath of the Second World War. From Europe to the China theater, the dissertation sheds light on the deep effects of Western imperialism and persistent Eurocentrism and antisemitism on humanitarian aid and immigration poli (open full item for complete abstract)

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Ohio University, 2020, History (Arts and Sciences)

World War II was a media war. Most previous scholarship on the press focuses on censorship, propaganda, or the adventures of war correspondents. This dissertation takes a new direction and shows how the press and public opinion influenced the conflict. U.S. military leaders attempted to use the press as a weapon to improve morale, build public support for national strategies, assist Allied relations, confuse the enemy, and inspire soldiers. The media and public opinion, however, also began shaping military actions on the battlefield. Commanders in Europe and the Pacific competed with other Allied forces for prestige objectives, waged public relations campaigns to have their theaters receive priority for supplies, and vied with each other for headlines. This influence of the press on the battlefield demonstrates how the media was an essential, though previously overlooked, component of total war. Nevertheless, the media-military relationship formed during World War II did not translate well into later limited wars.

Master of Arts (MA), Bowling Green State University, 2020, History

The material culture of World War II has left a profound impact on American memory of the war at both a societal and familial level. This work examines psychological causes which motivated soldiers to collect battlefield souvenirs, as well as how those underlying psychological causes have affected American memory of the war at a familial and societal level. Five families which inherited World War II artifacts from family veterans were interviewed to ascertain the motivations of their veteran's souvenir gathering as well as how the souvenirs impacted their memory of both the veteran as well as the war. To ascertain war artifacts' impact at a broader societal level, surveys were distributed amongst militaria collectors asking them what initiated their collecting hobby and how war artifacts affect their interpretations of the war. The results of these interviews and surveys revealed two major unconscious motivations for World War II veterans' souvenir hunting motivations as well as how the souvenirs impact American memory of the war both at both familial and societal levels. Veterans took war souvenirs primarily as a manner to seek revenge upon the enemies and war implements that traumatized them in the course of the war, and as a way to perpetuate their memories by symbolically living on through their artifacts. This revenge motive collecting is examined through the lens of trauma theory and soldiers' attempts at recovery through it. The motive to collect to perpetuate memory after death is examined through the lens of terror management theory. The impact of these motivations, especially terror management, has led to the artifacts in family memory becoming catalysts for the “Good War” narrative of World War II in American memory. The artifacts, as viewed by families and collectors, perpetuate this narrative of veterans fighting the “Good War” in American history.

Master of Arts (MA), Ohio University, 2019, History (Arts and Sciences)

Since the second decade of the twenty-first century the littoral has been a zone of international tension. With the littoral the likely center of future naval engagements, it is important to remember that the issues of today are not new. Admiral Roger Keyes of the Royal Navy also had to contend with operating in contested littoral zones protected by anti-access weapons. Keyes' solution to this was the integration of the latest weapons and techniques to overcome enemy defenses. By doing so, Keyes was able to project power upon a region or protect sea lines of communication. This thesis will examine the naval career of Roger Keyes during and between the First and Second World Wars. It will discuss that, through wartime experience, Keyes was aware of the trends in naval operations which led him to modernize the Royal Navy. This thesis will also explain that, despite his foresight, the Royal Navy refused to adopt his ideas due to traditionalist strategies and budget cuts. Nevertheless, Keyes' ideas would not only be proven correct in the Second World War, but also correlate with how we perceive naval operations in the littoral today.

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2019, Music

This dissertation examines music in US-Korea relations from 1941 to 1960. Beginning during World War II, the US government disseminated Western classical and American music in Korea. After the war, the United States also gained the confidence of Koreans by supporting Korean traditional music that had been suppressed under Japanese colonial rule. Yet South Koreans were not merely passive recipients of US propaganda. As the Korean War divided Korea into North and South, South Korean officials used music to affirm the anti-Communist alliance between South Korea and the United States. American music spread rapidly in South Korea, contributing to the formation of South Korean identities different from those of the Communist North. By tracing a history of musical relations in the transitional period from the colonial era to the early Cold War, this project emphasizes that US Cold War music propaganda programs were not an entirely new initiative but built on the foundations laid in the 1940s. By demonstrating that a peripheral country used music as a tool for political negotiations with a superpower, this project also expands the horizons of scholarship on music propaganda, which has focused overwhelmingly on US and Soviet interventions in Europe. The US government's desire for hegemony provided both the political impetus and the resources for disseminating American music abroad, for music was an effective tool for cultural propaganda. The South Korean government's ambition of rebuilding a nationalist identity against the Communist North enabled the alliance and encouraged the acceptance of American music. Music diplomacy eventually supported a bilateral relationship based on shared political interests. The political purposes of the US and South Korean governments shaped listeners' experiences of Western music in South Korea.

PHD, Kent State University, 2018, College of Arts and Sciences / Department of History

To explore how and why marriage rates in the United States reached record-breaking heights during World War II, Romanticizing Patriarchy uses cultural and social history methodologies to argue that films, magazines, servicemen, and women, romanticized patriarchy in wartime America. To do this, American culture and individuals deemphasized patriarchal power in marriage and instead emphasized the loving and supportive characteristics of marital unions. This idealized perception of patriarchal marriage served as a powerful tool that preserved short and long term national stability by alleviating wartime problems and postwar concerns. In this sense, marriage promised to (1) create national unity through family formation by providing an emotional link across the home front and warfronts, (2) promote marital monogamy, and thereby lessen the threat venereal disease posed to American fighting forces while legitimately reproducing the national citizenry, and (3) preserve husbandly authority and female subordination even as wartime challenged normative gender roles. In other words, the World War II concept of romantic patriarchy solidified war marriage as a form of social control, which preserved the power and privileges of white men during the war and into the postwar era. Much of the historical literature accepts that the Cold War triggered what many Americans thought was a golden age of marriage in the 1950s. During this time, scholars suggest that a culture of conformity and strict gender roles created domestic tension and planted the seeds for the Women's Liberation Movement. This dissertation, however, shows that romantic patriarchy encouraged skyrocketing marriage rates during World War II and provided the foundation for the mythical family ideal of the 1950s. My work also reveals how wartime Americans thwarted women's independence and egalitarian relationships by romanticizing the normative gender roles that the war prevented them from practicing. These idealiza (open full item for complete abstract)

Bachelor of Arts, Wittenberg University, 2016, History

This essay explores how artists Louis Raemaekers and Sir David Low used political cartoons during the World Wars. Pictorial propaganda, such as political cartoons, social cartoons, caricatures, and comic art, played a significant role during war efforts and were used to sway the opinions of viewers. Pictorial propaganda was used to unify the public, to reinforce already existing negative stereotypes, to make people aware of atrocities, and to encourage other countries to form alliances and to persuade them to join the war. Dutch artist Louis Raemaekers directed hatred towards Germany and Kaiser Wilhelm II and was considered the most influential cartoonist during World War I. Raemaekers' cartoons focused on showing the atrocities the Germans committed against helpless countries and people. Themes of patriotism and America's duty to help victims became Raemaekers main focuses in his cartoons. During World War II, New Zealand artist Sir David Low was known for his cartoons of Hitler and was, according to Timothy Benson, "the most celebrated political cartoonist of the last century." Low had similar focuses to Raemaekers but drew his characters in their true likeliness, whereas Raemaekers used images of animals. Low also focused on wartime patriotism, the theme of sacrifice, and the passivity of allies during war. Pictorial cartoons and propaganda that were put out by the Allies during the World Wars varied in style, but overall similar themes of patriotism, pride, and sacrifice and had the intention of showing civilians to support the war efforts and also to turn the public opinion against the enemy by showing their flaws and barbaric actions.

BA, Oberlin College, 2018, History

In 1941, under the leadership of General Claire Lee Chennault, the Flying Tigers- a volunteer group of fighter pilots and crewmen from the United States- traveled to Southwestern China to support the Chinese Nationalist military in their resistance against the Japanese. How do the United States and China remember the Flying Tigers, and how is the memory shaped by domestic and international politics? Drawing from media coverage, museums, popular media, and memoirs, this thesis traces the evolution of the memories of the Flying Tigers in the U.S. and China from 1941 to the present. I argue that from the war years through the present, the memory of the Flying Tigers have converged and diverged between (and within) the U.S. and China. Although some of the narratives have been deliberately obscured at times, the memories have been able to coexist without much tension. The romantic narratives of the operation have served the needs of actors ranging from veterans and locals, to the national governments, in constructing themselves, and ultimately the nation, in a positive way. Therefore, the memory of the Flying Tigers, often a result of the interplay between the different actors, has become a space through which both nations can promote their own national identity and imagine a reconciliation through this model of transnational friendship.

BA, Oberlin College, 2018, History

By the close of the American Occupation of Japan in 1952, Japan was a sovereign nation, a lingering World War II menace, and much needed Cold War ally of the United States. American magazine print media imagery and advertising therefore had to erase its earlier wartime propaganda depictions of the Japanese while rebranding Japan as a harmless friend to the U.S. In the hundred years after Commodore Matthew Perry's opening of Japan in 1853, American magazines have utilized several visual trends, stereotypes, and tropes in order to cast the Japanese as peaceful, simple, and eager followers of U.S. culture and foreign policy. I seek to uncover how this idealized representation of the Japanese and America's relationship with the Japanese was depicted in U.S. magazine imagery of the 1950s. Ending with the revised U.S.-Japan Security Treaty in 1960, this project is an in depth visual analysis of magazine pictures and reveals how a new image of Japan was sold to a war-weary and prejudiced American public.

Master of Arts (MA), Wright State University, 2018, History

The present assessment of Japanese intelligence operations during World War II is based almost entirely upon the work of Western researchers. The view presented is one of complete incompetence by the West. Little attention has been paid to any successes the Japanese intelligence organizations achieved. In fact, the majority of Anglo-American historians have instead focused on the errors and unpreparedness of the Allies as the cause of their early failures. This view is completely dismissive of Japanese intelligence efforts. The majority of the research does not take into account the extensive preparations and training the Japanese intelligence organizations and military undertook in the lead up to World War II. This information calls into question the assertion that Allied failures were the primary provenance of the early Japanese successes. This study focuses on the Japanese intelligence efforts from 1930 to 1942. It will analyze the events leading up to and the Invasion of Malaya. This was a pivotal event at the opening of World War II, and was a decisive Japanese victory. Previously, the success of Japanese forces during this, and other, event has been credited to failures in Allied intelligence and preparedness. Western sources at large have claimed that Japanese intelligence as a whole was faulty. This project will argue that in fact Japanese intelligence units were highly skilled and contributed greatly to Japanese successes. It was as a result of severe organizational deficiencies and failures that appeared in the latter half of the war that Japan eventually would fall behind in the intelligence war.