Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.), Xavier University, 2024, Psychology

There is long-standing evidence that acquired capability and emotion regulation are key to understanding the progression from self-harm to suicide (Law et al., 2015; Turton et al., 2021; Van Orden et al., 2010). However, recent literature suggests that emotion dysregulation alone is not a sufficient explanation for non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and suicidality. Research has demonstrated that emotion-regulation self-efficacy (ERSE), or the belief in one's ability to regulate one's emotions (e.g., Gratz et al., 2020), is a factor in predicting the pathway between NSSI and suicidal behavior (Gratz et al., 2020). The purpose of this project was to examine the relationship between emotion reactivity, ERSE, NSSI, acquired capability, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Participants were asked to complete a screener and those who endorsed self-harm history were eligible to complete the follow-up questionnaire (N = 174). Findings indicated that ERSE is lower among people with history of NSSI and either suicidal ideation or suicide attempt history, as compared to those with only a history of NSSI. In addition, ERSE is negatively associated with emotion reactivity such that those with greater emotion reactivity have lower ERSE. ERSE predicted suicidal risk over and above emotion reactivity, acquired capability, and number of NSSI methods. Last, ERSE for positive affect predicted suicidal risk over and above emotion reactivity and acquired capability, such that those with lower ERSE have higher suicidal risk. Implications of these findings point to ERSE as a predictor for suicidal risk.

Master of Education, The Ohio State University, 2022, Kinesiology

Rock climbing is an alternative full-body exercise to mainstream forms of physical activity. It involves diverse avenues of engagement that challenge participants both physically and mentally. Such appeal, along with increased access to climbing through a rise in the number of indoor gyms and “airtime” on platforms such as the Olympics, has resulted in significant increases in climbing participation in recent years. Likewise, research in the field is expanding to meet the increased interest and address the abundant circumstances unique to study in climbing. This study was designed to adapt the Physical Activity Self-Regulation Scale (PASR-12), originally validated to assess physical activity-related self-regulatory behavior in the older adults, to the climbing population and explore the initial validity of this modified version of the scale for climbers. Both the PASR-12 and its adapted form to climbers, the Adapted Self-Regulation Scale for Climbers (ASRS-C), were administered. Additionally, a previously validated scale for the climbing population addressing another behavioral construct linked with self-regulation, self-efficacy, was also administered in the form of the Climbing Self-Efficacy Scale (CSES). A final, general physical activity self-efficacy scale was administered, the Multidimensional Self-Efficacy Scale (MSES), to compare the 2 valid and reliable assessments in the climbing population. Additional information was collected on the background/demographics of the sample, their climbing level and experience, as well as their amount of engagement in other physical activity. Results A total of 147 climbers took the survey (male n= 74, female n=65, non-binary n=8; M age = 32.56 years). Respondents average experience bouldering, top-roping, lead climbing, and traditional (trad) climbing was 16.7, 12.0, 15.3, and 13.7 years respectively. According to the International Rock-Climbing Research Association (IRCRA) ranking system by gender, on average, b (open full item for complete abstract)

Doctor of Organization Development & Change (D.O.D.C.), Bowling Green State University, 2022, Organization Development

The purpose of this dissertation was twofold; first to advance the Use of Self (UoS) construct by examining the dimensions of UoS, then to develop an instrument for people to self-assess how they view and use themselves in the workplace. The validity and reliability of the Use of Self Survey Instrument (UoS-SI) were analyzed using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and reliability analysis. A preliminary EFA was conducted using principal component analysis with a Promax rotation method which supported the three factor-structure of the instrument. The three dimensions of Self-Awareness, Situational Awareness, and Intentional Action were comprised of 55 initial items that were reduced to 33 (eleven per factor) after the items that did not load, cross-loaded, or were substantially the same as another item that loaded higher were removed. The final three-factor structure was run using PCA as the extraction method with a Promax rotation method with the remaining 33 items. The resulting structure loaded cleanly with the three factors of Self-Awareness, Situational Awareness, and Intentional Action, explaining 53.09% of the variance in the relationship patterns of the items and the factors correlating at r > .51. This supports the assertion that the three factors are part of the larger UoS construct, while also being unique and highly reliable with Cronbach alphas a >.90. This also supports that the UoS-SI is a valid and reliable instrument. This research is important because it further extends the empirical evidence on UoS and contributes to the body of knowledge within organizational contexts. Much of the UoS literature focuses on helping-type professions and specifically in the therapy and Organization Development & Change (OD&C) fields. However, little empirical research has been conducted on UoS and there is no known research on how professionals outside of these helping disciplines in organizations use UoS in the workplace. Addressing this limitation is importa (open full item for complete abstract)

Master of Science in Sport Studies, Miami University, 2006, Physical Education, Health, and Sport Studies

This pre-test/post-test matched-groups study examined the influences of type of self-talk and who selects the self-talk on one-mile run performance. Eighty-one collegiate cross-country runners were assigned to one of six intervention groups after completing baseline one-mile time-trials: motivational self-set, motivational assigned, instructional self-set, instructional assigned, combined self-set, or combined assigned. Results of six one-way ANOVA's revealed that although all six intervention groups had meaningful improvements in run times from pre-test to post-test, only the combined self-set group, motivational self-set group, and instructional assigned group had improvements that were statistically significant. Also, a 3(type of statement) x 2 (self/assigned) x 2(trials) repeated measures ANOVA indicated no significant between-group main effects or interactions. No significant differences between the groups regarding participants' satisfaction levels, effort, and perceived improvement were found with all participants reporting that they tried hard and were satisfied with the intervention.

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2022, Chemistry

Numerous biological processes are carried out by the detection and interaction of small organic molecules, which assemble to form larger macrostructures. In Nature these processes are highly controlled, as small deformities can have deadly implications. Amino acids, peptides, nucleic acids, and proteins arrange with remarkable specificity into distinct structures that adapt, reorganize, and interact with their surroundings to enable the biological functions that characterize life. To truly duplicate the complexity, specificity, and operation of natural systems, however, it is essential to comprehend and design synthetic building blocks with controllable assembly properties and interactions. As an approach for creating responsive and adaptive materials, the self-assembly of organic peptide-based molecules into nanostructures was examined in the following studies. It is hoped that the advancements reported here in pH-controllable self-assembly, pathway control, and hierarchical structures can be further used to create nanomaterials for biomedical and optoelectronic applications.

Psy. D., Antioch University, 2022, Antioch Seattle: Clinical Psychology

Evidence suggests that clinical psychology trainees may be vulnerable to stress, vicarious traumatization, secondary traumatic stress, compassion fatigue, and burnout. Research also indicates that engaging in self-care may help to protect clinical psychology trainees against those experiences and enhance their well-being. However, best available research suggests self-care education is not consistently incorporated into clinical psychology training or prioritized by program directors. This study provided a systematic review of existing literature on self-care for clinical psychology trainees, utilizing reflexive thematic analysis to identify the essential skills, knowledge, and attitudes of self-care which should be taught to trainees, and how to operationalize self-care education in clinical psychology training programs. The objective was to facilitate the incorporation of self-care education into clinical psychology training by identifying what self-care education should address, and how to integrate it into training. In so doing, it was hoped that psychology training programs might increase access to self-care education for trainees, thus increasing trainees' well-being and professional competence and decreasing the likelihood of ethical lapses, impairment, PPC, and compassion stress injuries. Reflexive thematic analysis yielded detailed findings. Essential self-care knowledge themes included the hazards of practicing psychology and an overview of self-care. Essential self-care skills themes included: self-awareness/self-monitoring; self-assessment, utilize support; cognitive strategies, mindfulness, balance/boundaries; physical self-care; spirituality/religion; and create and implement a self-care plan. Themes for essential self-care attitudes included openness/transparency; self-compassion; and gratitude. Themes on operationalizing self-care education included personal practice models for teaching self-care and recommendatio (open full item for complete abstract)

Doctor of Psychology (PsyD), Wright State University, 2018, School of Professional Psychology

There have been relatively few studies that have empirically explored the relationship between self-compassion and nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI). Previous studies have found that engagement in self-injurious behaviors is closely related to being self-critical (Glassman, Weierich, Hooley, Deliberto, & Nock, 2007; Hooley, Ho, Slater, & Lockshin, 2010).Therefore, it has been suggested that higher levels of self-compassion may be associated with less engagement in NSSI. The current study explored the relationship between self-reported self-compassion and past self-reported occurrences of NSSI. This study used Neff's (2003a) 12 item Self-Compassion Scale- Short Form (SCS-SF) to measure one's level of self-compassion and a Client Information/Demographics Questionnaire (SDS-CCMH) to determine past occurrences of NSSI. It was hypothesized that there would be significant mean differences in self-reported self-compassion scores in individuals who have self-reported occurrences of self-injury than those with no self-reported occurrences. Participants were divided into two groups: those who reported past occurrences of self-injury and those who reported no self-injury. This study involved two main analyses. The first analysis was a biserial Pearson's r correlation in order to determine if there was a significant association between NSSI (e.g. self-injury versus no self-injury) and self-compassion. The second analysis was an independent t-test to allow a direct examination of the hypothesis. Results from the study supported the hypothesis as those who reported past occurrences of self-injury had significantly lower self-compassion scores than those who reported no past occurrence of self-injury. The findings demonstrate and provide empirical data that one's level of self-compassion may play a significant role in one's decision to engage in self-injury.

Master of Science, Miami University, 2006, Family and Child Studies

This thesis is the development of a family life education program: Finding Release to Explore and Experience Dimensions of Me (F.R.E.E.D.O.M). The primary purpose of this program is to encourage sexually abused female adolescents in juvenile detention to develop the self awareness that enables them to learn more effective coping strategies. More specifically, this family life education program recognizes that self defeating behaviors such as drug and alcohol abuse and self mutilation are avoidant coping mechanisms used in response to traumatic experiences and therefore focuses on teaching self-awareness and self-respect to girls in the Clermont County (Ohio) Juvenile Detention Center.

Doctor of Philosophy, Case Western Reserve University, 2008, Organizational Behavior

This study explores the relationship between self-integration, self-complexity, and integrative learning. Drawing from constructivist adult ego development theorists (Kegan, 1994; Loevinger, 1976; 1988; Lahey et al. 1988; Perry, 1999; Piaget, 1962; Rogers, 1951) the definition of self-integration emphasizes a person's transformation in epistemology and meaning making, underlying both psycho-social and cognitive maturation. Building on post-conventional constructivist adult ego development theory (Cook-Greuter, 1999; Johnson, 2000; Kegan, 1994; Lahey, 1986) this is one of the first empirical explorations of self-integration, operationally defined as two variables, capturing a conventional and a post-conventional component. Important work in this area has been theoretical. Self-integration is operationalized as (1) self-ideal congruence, as measured by Higgins (1985; 1987 ;) and as defined in intentional change theory (Boyatzis and Akrivou, 2006), and (2) self-integrating process, as captured by a newly developed direct response measure based on post-conventional constructivist theory. Self-complexity is operationally defined as the numbers of self-aspects that a person utilizes to represent his/her self internally (Linville, 1987). Integrative learning is measured as adaptive flexibility, the ability for systematic variability in a person's response to different environmental needs (Kolb, 1984). Based on quantitative research methods, overall findings from data collected from 198 adults in management and professional roles confirmed the hypotheses that self complexity is positively related to both measures of integration (self-ideal congruence and self-integrating process), and integrative learning is positively related to the second measure of integration. Age, a control, is positively related to the second measure of integration. Findings support operationalization of self-integration as two distinct variables, being – to my knowledge – the first empirical testing (open full item for complete abstract)

Doctor of Organization Development & Change (D.O.D.C.), Bowling Green State University, 2022, Organization Development

Self-awareness is considered one of the most important skills an Organization Development Practitioner (ODP) can develop to best serve their clients. However, there is limited knowledge about ODPs' levels and practices of self-awareness. Additionally, past research on self-awareness has focused on the component of self in the activation of self-awareness. In this study, ODPs were surveyed to understand if there is a difference in general and work-focused self-awareness. The situational self-awareness scale (SSAS) by Govern and Marsch (2001) and the self-awareness in nursing practice (SAN) scale by Rasheed, Sundus, and Younas (2020) were used to measure general and work-focused self-awareness respectively. In Phase 1 of the study, 76 ODPs were rated using both instruments. Results indicated that the work-focused self-awareness score was higher than the general self-awareness score for ODPs. While there was no significant difference in the general self-awareness of ODPs by gender, the results showed that males' work-focused self-awareness was lower than females'. In addition, the results indicated a significant positive relationship between years of experience and work-focused self-awareness and between work-focused self-awareness and general self-awareness. In Phase 2, seven ODPs identified (via open-ended questions) possible self-awareness topics and words associated with these topics. Results from Phase 2 revealed the following: (1) an overall positive sentiment scores associated with ODPs work-focused self-awareness; and (2) the topic modeling revealed that the words associated with the three topics are mainly work-related terms.

Master of Arts, Case Western Reserve University, 2020, History

For over 150 years, the “Three-Self” principles, including “Self-Support,” have been central to Chinese Christianity. During the late nineteenth century, William Ashmore, the leading American Baptist missionary in South China, aggressively adopted these principles as an extension of his denomination's congregational approach to church governance—insisting that Chinese churches be self-governing and financially self-sufficient. During the 1920s and thereafter, Three-Self was widely embraced by Chinese Christians as an expression of resurgent nationalism. When the Chinese Communists came to power in 1949, they transformed Self-Support to establish official Chinese Christianity on a non-denominational, hyper-nationalist, and anti-imperialist basis. This thesis focuses on several conflicts over Self-Support in Kit-Yang between 1889 and 1949, showing how power struggles among different groups reshaped the Three-Self principles amid the larger revolutionary transformations of Chinese society. Ironically, the Communist government's reconceptualization of the Three-Self concept effectively reversed its original meaning, replacing local autonomy with centralized control.

Master of Arts (M.A.), Xavier University, 2019, Psychology

The current study examined the relationships between active and passive procrastination and self-regulation and self-efficacy. Participants completed a survey through Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk) to measure levels of active procrastination, passive procrastination, self-regulation, and self-efficacy for completing work tasks. Findings suggested that individuals who exhibit higher levels of passive procrastination have lower levels of self-regulation and self-efficacy. There was no significant relationship found between active procrastination and either self-regulation or self-efficacy. Lastly, findings indicated that people who are better able to meet deadlines, which is a sub-dimension of active procrastination, showed higher levels of self-regulation and self-efficacy. These findings suggest that organizations should be aware of employees' level of passive procrastination and their ability to meet deadlines because of its impact on their performance and other work-related costs.

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2018, Human Ecology: Fashion and Retail Studies

Facial-mapping augmented reality interactive technology (ARIT) has enabled consumers to virtually wear beauty products (Weinswig, 2016). For consumers, this technology is considered “a revolutionary way of self-expression (Ongley, 2016)”. For beauty retailers, it is viewed as a new “guided selling tool” effectively transitioning online shoppers to actual beauty product buyers (Milnes, 2016). With the increasing importance of consumer experience (CX) in marketing (Kruman, 2017), satisfaction as emotional evaluation has attracted more attention as a key to understand consumer behavior toward retailer services. Belk (1988) explained a consumer's purchasing behavior as the effort of “extending self” or enhancing self-image. Recently, the traditional self-concept established in the physical world has been blurred by social media, clouds, and digital technologies (Belk, 2013). A consumers' overall sense of self now exists across the physical and the digital world (Elwell, 2013). Accordingly, consumer behaviors influenced by self-image are expected to have changed with the digitally blended retailing environment. The proliferation of selfie in social networks has created perceived gaps between “ideal-look” online and “daily-look” offline self-images (Rettberg, 2017). According to self-image discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987), the beauty consumers in social networks are likely to engage in behaviors that reduce appearance self-image discrepancies between the physical (offline) and digital (online) dimensions. As consumer's experience of AR/digital makeup, selfie experience is expected to strengthen the satisfaction effect of ARIT makeup on behavior intention, and to encourage the individual to conform to the appearance ideal in society. This dissertation introduced state appearance self-esteem (i.e., satisfaction with ARIT makeup) as a key factor for converting ARIT makeup service triers to loyal customers in reality. Two studies were conducted for this research. Study (open full item for complete abstract)

Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), Bowling Green State University, 2017, Leadership Studies

This concurrent mixed methods study examined how the experiences of being a woman in computing affects her self-esteem over the course of her undergraduate career and into professional employment. Self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale that applies both competence and worthiness constructs. General (global) self-esteem was compared to self-esteem within the context of computing (computing-based self-esteem). Female attendees (N=546) of ACM-W celebrations of women in computing were invited to complete a Computing Experience Survey (CES). Quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed separately then mixed to validate findings. Quantitative results indicated that women reported significantly lower computing-based self-esteem than global self-esteem. Additionally, competence and worthiness significantly differed within computing-based self-esteem throughout one's college progression and into the profession. All measures of self-esteem (global, computing-based, competence, and worthiness) improve for professionals. Analysis of open-ended questions illustrated that competence and worthiness are intertwined in computing experiences, and positive and negative experiences often contained a social component. The following conclusions were presented: (1) context matters when measuring self-esteem; (2) competence and worthiness are separate but related dimensions of self-esteem; (3) computing-based self-esteem changes throughout a student's college career and into the profession; (4) experiences in computing provide explanations for these changes in computing-based self-esteem and shed light on persistence, career faithfulness, and leadership; and, (5) when worthiness is present, it is strongly tied to competence for women in computing.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Ohio University, 2017, Experimental Psychology (Arts and Sciences)

The present studies support the assumption that when an important part of self-worth is threatened, priming a different part of self-worth reduces negative consequences associated with the threat. In particular, I test the hypothesis that shifting the weight, or temporary importance, from one contingency of self-worth (CSW) to a different contingency of self-worth will reduce self-handicapping and prevent lowered self-esteem and negative affect experienced when failure occurs in an important domain. Results across four studies partially support this hypothesis. Studies 1 and 2 limited the CSW domains to virtue and academic success. As predicted, priming a CSW that is inconsistent with the task domain (e.g., priming virtue after negative academic feedback), resulted in less self-handicapping relative to priming a CSW that is consistent with the task domain (e.g., priming academics after negative academic feedback). Similarly, for people whose self-worth is staked in academic success, an inconsistent prime/task procedure resulted in marginally higher self-esteem and less negative affect relative to a consistent prime/task procedure. Studies 3 and 4 extended the domain to athletics. Although significant differences were not found between consistent and inconsistent prime/task procedures with regard to self-esteem or negative affect (Study 4), overall sports domain importance interacted with prime/task consistency to predict self-handicapping in the hypothesized direction (Study 3). Finally, the proposed intervention was effective in increasing intrinsic motivation on athletic and academic tasks, suggesting that priming a CSW in a non-threatened domain may be effective in promoting a greater sense of autonomy and enjoyment in a threatened CSW domain.

Master of Science (MS), Bowling Green State University, 2015, Applied Statistics (Math)

In this thesis, statistical methods are used to examine developments in ethnic identity and changes in ethnic/racial self-classification at a school district in North Central Ohio. Factor analysis and polychoric correlations are used to create a reliable scale measure of ethnic identity. Parametric and non-parametric analyses of variance and multiple comparison procedures are utilized to examine differences in the strength of ethnic identity among groups of students. In addition, a repeated measures analysis of variance model is utilized to examine developments in ethnic identity over time. Results show discrepancies in the strength of ethnic identity among gender/ethnicity groups in the district but minimal longitudinal changes in ethnic identity. Changes in ethnic/racial self-classification are examined through logistic and ordinal logistic regression, estimations of the proportion of change each semester, and a two-way table analysis. Certain groups of students are found to be highly likely to change ethnic/racial self-classification. In addition, interesting flow patterns between ethnic group classifications are discovered.

PHD, Kent State University, 2014, College of Education, Health and Human Services / School of Teaching, Learning and Curriculum Studies

The main purpose of this study was to measure differences in pre-service teachers' awareness levels of when self-determination behaviors are demonstrated in others. The current study examined relationships among many variables such as pre-service teachers' age, gender, current credits and degree, licensure, and professional experience. The last variable examined pre-service teachers' pre-and posttest scores both within and between experimental and control groups. The research question that guided the current study was: Can pre-service teachers become more aware of when a person behaves in a self-determined manner? To assess the affects of the intervention, a quasi-experimental design of pretest-posttest of the experimental group, and posttest only for the control group was used. Overall the results found that the experimental group demonstrated a significant increase across pre- and posttest scores in awareness by correctly identifying when components of self-determination were depicted in the videos. Furthermore, teachers showed growth in their ability to recognize specific steps to each skill demonstrated in the clips. Finally, teachers did not show significant improvement in misspecifications of self-determination when they mistakenly recorded a self-determined behavior when it was not evident in the video. Finally, in looking more closely at the intervention itself in raising understanding and awareness of steps to each of the nine skills of self-determination, the study found that participants had significant improvement in identifying all but two of the skills. The two skills that pre-service teachers did not significantly increase abilities in awareness and understanding were that of choice-making and self-advocacy.

MA, University of Cincinnati, 2009, Arts and Sciences : Sociology

In a free market economy, entrepreneurship plays a central role in economic growth. There is a unanimous agreement that entrepreneurship creates new economic entities, promotes new markets and innovations, and introduces new goods and services. However, scholars disagree on the issue that why people start their own businesses in the first place. The objective of this study is to investigate the impact of various socioeconomic indices on the probability of becoming self-employed. It sheds some light on who the new entrepreneurs are—the haves who start their own businesses as a career option to pursue more opportunities (opportunity pursuit theory), or the have-nots who use self-employment as a default to deal with economic hardship (survival strategy theory). Using 2005 and 2006 Current Population Survey (CPS) data, this study applies multinomial regression analysis to examine 20,571 respondents' socioeconomic indices and their employment status, either as being self-employed (unincorporated/incorporated) or as being employed workers. By examining explanatory variables in the model, including prior employment experience and occupation-related variables, this study reveals that the self-employed should not be treated as a homogenous category. People who are in incorporated self-employment often fall in the category of the haves (i.e., higher earnings and professional status), which fits the opportunity pursuit theory; the unincorporated self-employed is in general associated with lower income and longer period of unemployment, which fits the survival strategy theory. Possible explanations are presented, and related policy implications are discussed.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Ohio University, 2012, Psychology (Arts and Sciences)

A large body of literature has documented the existence of numerous strategies designed to protect and promote the self-concept. Indeed, a number of researchers have viewed affirming and asserting self-aspects as the primary vehicle for promoting resilience in the face of threat and maintaining positive overall self-evaluations. The present studies depart from this approach and instead propose an alternative means by which one may alleviate the personal impact of negative life events—diminishing one's perceived importance. It is argued that diminishing one's perceived importance by viewing oneself within the context of a broader life perspective (i.e., within “the grand scheme of things”) can help ameliorate the deleterious psychological consequences of negative events. Study 1 demonstrated that the construct of diminished self-importance can be manipulated by video exposure to nature images in a laboratory setting. Study 2 examined whether diminishing the perceived self-importance would help alleviate stressful reactions to hypothetical negative events. Study 3 and 4 attempted to show that diminished self-importance induced by other manipulation techniques would buffer the impact of actual negative events and that the effects were moderated by levels of state self-esteem. The results provided partial support for the hypothesis that diminished self- importance serves as a buffer against negative events. Discussion focuses on issues associated with manipulating the construct of diminished self-importance as well as directions for future research.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Ohio University, 2011, Psychology (Arts and Sciences)

Self-protection refers to the people's tendency to minimize their shortcomings in order to avoid feeling bad about themselves. The present research examines how self-protection motivations affect people's construals regarding their potentially immoral behaviors. Previous research on this topic has focused on the excuses, rationalizations, and self-serving attributions that people employ to argue that their behaviors are not as bad as they appear. Less is known about how people construe their behaviors that they know are bad. To inform this gap in the literature, the present studies sought a more nuanced view of people's beliefs about their own bad behaviors by examining how these beliefs become integrated into their self-concepts. The purpose of these three studies was to provide experimental evidence that the magnitude of self-protection varies as a function of levels of construal or abstraction. To this end, each study involved an actor-observer paradigm in which participants provided concrete construals of identical behaviors committed by themselves and others and abstract construals regarding the degree to which these behaviors were linked to higher-level self-concepts. In Study 1, regardless of level of abstraction, participants judged themselves more leniently than target persons. When participants were granted access to target person's justifications for their negative behaviors (Study 2 and Study 3), however, they viewed their own behaviors as less negative than those of others (low-level construals). Across all three studies, participants predicted that they would be less likely than target persons to perform the negative behaviors again (mid-level construals). When judging themselves relative to target persons in Study 3, participants did not rate themselves less negatively on trait judgments and global attributions (high-level construals). All three studies provide converging evidence that the self-other discrepancies are at least partially accounted for (open full item for complete abstract)