Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2009, ED Physical Activities and Educational Services

The purpose of this study is to make transparent the current National School Lunch Program (NSLP). The first mission of this project is to clarify how the NSLP functions on a day-to-day basis in Columbus, Ohio. Columbus is used as a sample city, yet the aim of this research is to be transferable to other locations. The second objective is to gain a clearer understanding of the NSLP from the perspective of those who work in the field, and how they would like to improve the Program. This study employs qualitative inquiry through the use of individual interviews and observations to measure the participants. The approach is naturalistic, which encourages the researcher to interact with the sample in their natural environment. The perspective is that of eleven individuals working for the National School Lunch Program. Through a guided interviewing process these participants spoke of their experiences in the current nutritional model, and gave suggestions of improvement. Their stories on nutrition, hopes of better food, and equitable lunches were audio-recorded, and the data were analyzed and coded in a final report. The results from this investigation reveal that the National School Lunch Program is a spike, or a foreign object inserted into an environment, having little interaction with the community. In addition, those working in the National School Lunch Program often did not see problems with the initiative (even in the face of growing obesity, inattentive disorders, and mood issues). During the interviews it became apparent that many in the NSLP see the benefits of bringing in more local, fresher foods for the students, but they could not imagine going against the hierarchy of the NSLP. In response to the first research question, how the NSLP functions, the most frequent response was through near total control. Indeed, this faltering program, one that the USDA has hopes of making healthier, sees itself as unchangeable.

Committee: Antoinette Miranda PhD (Advisor); Kisha Radliff PhD (Committee Member); Jeff Sharp PhD (Committee Member) Subjects: Adult Education; Behaviorial Sciences; Developmental Psychology; Education; Educational Psychology; Food Science; Health Education; Psychology

MS, Kent State University, 2016, College of Education, Health, and Human Services / School of Health Sciences

The purpose of this study was to compare the nutrient composition of school provided lunches by the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) and packed lunches of upper elementary school children (grades 3-5), males and females, and elementary schools of low and high percentages of free and reduced lunches. This study was a non- experimental, post-test, comparative design. Lunches (n=286) from two elementary schools in the same school district participated in the study. The high socioeconomic status (SES) school had 6% of their students on the free and reduced meal program, while the low SES school had 56% of their students on the free and reduced meal program. Nutrient composition of the lunches was measured using a digital photography method. The camera was placed at the same angle (19 cm) and distance (12 in) from the lunches on a tripod for consistency on all data collection days. Data was then analyzed by Food Processor 10.8.0 (2011) and SPSS software. A four-way ANOVA was used to compare each variable. There were significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences between elementary schools, school provided and packed lunches, males and females, and grade levels. The results show there is a need for further research in NSLP nutrition guidelines, as well as financial guidelines.

Committee: Natalie Caine-Bish (Advisor); Karen Gordon (Committee Member); Eun-Jeong Ha (Committee Member) Subjects: Higher Education Administration; Nutrition

MS, Kent State University, 2015, College of Education, Health, and Human Services / School of Foundations, Leadership and Administration

The United States Department of Agriculture and the National School Lunch Program sets regulations to participating school districts to provide healthy meals to the students. The first of three new sodium regulations was implemented in the 2014-2015 academic school year with the maximum target sodium level set at 1360 milligrams for a lunch meal. This study examined whether the new sodium guidelines affected the student consumption on selected entre'es using plate waste pre-food and post-food photographs. Data was collected in a Northeastern Ohio middle school over three days in fall 2014 during lunch. A one-way ANOVA and independent t-tests were used to test for statistical differences. Four entre'es and their individual components were examined. The only significant difference in consumption between days of data collection was found for the pizza sticks. There was also no significant difference between the production sales of each entre'e for the current academic fall menu cycle as compared to the same time period of the previous academic year. The new sodium regulations were not found to affect student consumption in this study. An important limitation to this study was the discovery, following the data collection, that few changes in the sodium content of the foods actually occurred in light of unanticipated adjustments to the standardized recipes. This study does highlight challenges anticipated when lower sodium levels are implemented in upcoming years.

Committee: Barbara Scheule (Advisor); Natalie Caine-Bish (Committee Member); Ning Kuang Chuang (Committee Member) Subjects: Food Science; Management; Nutrition

Doctor of Philosophy, Case Western Reserve University, 2023, History

Education remains one of the most polarized areas in American society. However, this is not a new phenomenon. From the 1950s to 1980, Congress, the executive branch, and judicial branch significantly increased their funding and oversight in public education. 1965 marked the year Congress passed legislation with the hopes of creating a more equitable system for all socioeconomic classes. However, conservatives also began to coalesce in the 1970s over segregation, helping spur the 1980 Reagan Revolution. 1981 marked the first year in over two decades where Congress cut the education budget for integrative services and changed how the federal government funded programs for low-income students. These changes were integral to the Reagan administration and conservative Congress's goals to reduce social services in an effort to reduce the budget and expand the economy while simultaneously preserving tax loopholes and cuts for the wealthy. Federal funding for social services like education saw cuts that hurt many of the gains that low-income school districts had seen over the previous two decades. One often overlooked piece of legislation–the 1981 Education Consolidation and Improvement Act (ECIA)–caused many of these changes. This act removed the protective language and funding that had helped lower income, bilingual, and segregated communities receive federal aid for the previous fifteen years. While creator John Ashbrook's initial intent for the ECIA was to give more power to local and state governments over education– something that conservatives thought was an important goal–the ECIA also ended integration programs and removed barriers to ensure funding went to high needs schools. These changes have affected education to this day.

Committee: Peter Shulman (Committee Chair); Renee Sentilles (Committee Member); John Flores (Committee Member); Timothy Black (Committee Member) Subjects: American History; Education; Education History; History; Public Policy

Master of Public Administration (MPA), Bowling Green State University, 2018, Public Administration

This research utilized the qualitative research design to explore the perceptions of people about the Ghana School Feeding Program(SFP) and its impacts on school enrollment, attendance, retention and academic performance of primary schoolchildren. The research also explores some of the challenges encountered in the implementation of the SFP in Ghana. The key questions that the research sought to address include; What are the impacts of the SFP on school enrollment, attendance and completion?, What are the impacts of the SFP on the academic performances of primary schoolchildren? and What are the challenges involved in the implementation of the SFP? In addressing these questions, the researcher utilized the Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs to explore the relationship between hunger and educational outcomes. Twelve participants were selected from six selected schools in the Accra Central District of the Greater Accra Region, Ghana to participate in the research. Participants for the research were selected through the purposive type of sampling and they included parents, teachers, administrators and caterers. Data was collected through a semi- structured phone interview. The findings of the study revealed the perceptions teachers, caterers, parents and school administrators have about the SFP and its impact on enrollment, attendance, completion and the academic performances of primary schoolchildren. Overall, the research participants perceive the SFP to improve educational and academic outcomes of primary schoolchildren. The research also found other issues such as improvement in cognitive development and the reduction of hunger associated with the SFP. Furthermore, the research found some major challenges of the SFP in the implementation of the SFP. These include, the lack of financial resources, the delay of funds to support the implementation of the SFP and poor nutrition mainly associated with improper menu planning and the frequent absence of vege (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Stefan Fritsch (Advisor); Philip John Welch (Committee Member); Shannon Orr (Committee Member) Subjects: Political Science; Public Administration; Public Health; Public Policy; School Administration

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2017, Agricultural, Environmental and Developmental Economics

In recent years the `farm to table' trend, the idea of understanding linkages between agricultural supply, food systems, and the food that is consumed, has been growing in popularity. This dissertation takes this idea a step further and examines topics on the progression from `farm to health outcomes.' It is important to recognize not only that food systems impact the way consumers eat, but that those food choices impact health outcomes and the way that medical care is consumed. The three essays of this dissertation examine three separate points along this continuum to improve the understanding of how food systems, food choice, health outcomes, and healthcare consumption interact. The first essay evaluates factors associated with school districts' decisions to participate in farm to school (FTS) programs. I leverage the USDA's Farm to School Census to analyze factors associated with FTS participation, the types of FTS activities implemented, and the challenges faced by participating school districts. I use spatially articulate data to estimate the spatial spillover effects of FTS participation. The results demonstrate that both school characteristics and local farm production factors are associated with FTS participation. The estimated spatial spillover effect is positive, suggesting that areas with a high penetration of FTS activities have lower barriers associated with implementing FTS programs. In my second essay, I shift to evaluating how parent-child pairs make the daily school lunch decision. Meals served in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) are on average more healthful than alternatives, implying that increasing participation in the NSLP can improve nutrition for a large number of children. However, there is little understanding of the household decision process that determines participation in the NSLP. This study uses a parent-child choice experiment to assess the impact of both parent and child on NSLP participation. The results show that b (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Brian Roe (Advisor); Allen Klaiber (Committee Member); Ani Katchova (Committee Member); Jill Clark (Committee Member) Subjects: Agricultural Economics; Behavioral Sciences; Economics

MS, University of Cincinnati, 2011, Allied Health Sciences: Nutrition

Objectives. To determine whether there are associations among body mass index (BMI), gender, race and socioeconomic status in third graders from Cincinnati Public Schools (CPS). Design. Cross-sectional study Participants/Setting. Participants were third graders (N=1,511) from 27 elementary schools located in the Cincinnati Public School district in Hamilton County, Ohio. Schools were selected based on percent participation in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP), which was chosen as an indicator of socioeconomic status (SES). Outcome Measures. Weight status based on BMI category as indentified by BMI percentile. Methods. Height and weight of third graders at each school were measured using standard practices with a scale and stadiometer. Measurements were taken throughout the 2010-2011 school year. BMI and BMI percentile were calculated using standard calculations by PowerSchool, an online program used by CPS to monitor and house various student data including race, gender and age. Data was then recoded for statistical analysis. Results. A significant association was found between BMI category and participation in the NSLP (X2 =29.739, p<.001). There was also a significant association between BMI category and race (X2 =37.533, p<.001), with students classified as “other” race having the highest percentage of both overweight and obesity, while students in the white group had the highest percentage of underweight and normal weight. No significant association between BMI category and gender was found (X2 =3.647, p=.302). A significant association was, however, found between BMI category and gender within the highest quartile of participation in the NSLP (X2 =12.399, p=.006). Lastly, a significant association was found between BMI category and race within the lowest quartile of participation in the NSLP (X2 =16.686, p=.011). Conclusion. While no association between BMI category and gender was found, African-American students and other non-white students were more l (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Graciela Falciglia PhD (Committee Chair); Seung-Yeon Lee PhD (Committee Member) Subjects: Nutrition

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Ohio University, 2023, History (Arts and Sciences)

Between 1954 and 1974 there was a concerted focus on improving global food security through the Food for Peace program. This dissertation explores the ways that voluntary agencies acted in concert with the U.S. government and recipient nations to address food security through programs focused on feeding vulnerable populations and providing food as payment-in-kind on work projects. Specifically, it looks at programs in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Additionally, it examines why, after 1974, the U.S. government chose to back away from its emphasis on Food for Peace. While Food for Peace was a popular aid program, this dissertation looks at how political maneuvering, the disappearance of surpluses, and a lack of emphasis on agricultural development culminated in the failure of the Food for Peace program to meet its goals in the countries identified above. Moreover, it suggests that this inability to address global food needs when the issue had ample attention reverberates even today, as food insecurity continues in much of the world.

Committee: Chester Pach (Advisor); Brad Jokisch (Committee Member); Patrick Barr-Melej (Committee Member); Mariana Dantas (Committee Member) Subjects: American History; History; International Relations

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2021, Agricultural, Environmental and Developmental Economics

There are many determinants of health such as individual dietary and health-related habits, constraints such as money and time, as well as market goods and services such as medical care, access to health insurance, and environmental conditions. In this dissertation, I focus on three key elements of household and individual consumption behaviors that are tied to economics of health and nutrition—policy, preferences, and consumption self-control. In the first essay, I demonstrate how receiving subsidized health care services can lead to new patterns of household consumption, specifically, undertaking fewer preventative health measures by the targeted households. This topic has received less attention in the literature. To do this, I investigate the effects of recent Medicaid expansions on eligible households' quarterly food and non-food expenditures using state and time variation in Medicaid expansion. Using an event-study design, and a triple difference-in-differences framework, I find that the Medicaid eligible households from expansion states spent less on fresh produce per adult and more on over-the-counter medications and remedies while not changing their expenses on frozen fruits and vegetables which have similar nutritional value as fresh fruits and vegetables. The robust reduction in fresh produce expenditures and increase in expenditures on over-the-counter medications and remedies suggest that while expanded public health insurance increases formal healthcare activity, it decreases informal preventative non-healthcare expenditures. These findings may begin to shift the focus in the literature on the unintended consequences of Medicaid expansion from sins of commission, i.e., moral hazard responses such as increased smoking, alcohol use and junk food consumption, to sins of omission, i.e., responses in which preventative health habits erode. In the second essay, I focus on healthy eating in institutions such as schools and colleges, which is promoted in (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Brian Roe (Advisor); H Allen Klaiber (Committee Member); Zoë Plakias (Committee Member); Wuyang Hu (Committee Member) Subjects: Agricultural Economics

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2014, Agricultural, Environmental and Developmental Economics

This dissertation explores the food choices of three groups. The first chapter explores the food choices of parents of elementary age school children using a stated preference survey approach. I explore whether school lunch calorie levels affect household perceptions of the healthfulness and intended consumption of National School Lunch Program lunches by presenting parents of school-aged children from a suburban school district a weekly lunch menu where each day's meal content, calorie level, and price are randomly assigned. Calorie level is not statistically significant for the lunch purchase decision across all income groups and has limited predictive power in the latent class model. However, calorie level has an indirect effect on the lunch purchase via the perceived school lunch health rating with lower calorie meals receiving higher health ratings. A simulation of school lunch profitability indicates that reducing meal calorie content has a modest, positive effect on the school lunch program profitability for the affluent school district studied. The second chapter explores the food choices of parents using a revealed preference survey approach. This study explores the determinants of early elementary student demand for school lunches in a school district with substantial demand variability due to high incomes, an open campus lunch policy and close proximity to children's residences. This study analyzes daily meal production records containing calorie information, serving date, portion size, and number of children served from 2002 - 2009 from a suburban elementary school for grades K through 3. The linear, log-linear, and log-log forms of the multiple regression model were used to estimate the effect of day, month, school year, and protein source, calorie information, precipitation, and temperature data on the number of meals purchased. The protein source of the main entree had the largest effect of alterable lunch elements. Calorie i (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Brian Roe (Advisor); Abdoul Sam (Committee Member); H. Allen Klaiber (Committee Member) Subjects: Agricultural Economics

MS, Kent State University, 2014, College of Education, Health, and Human Services / School of Health Sciences

The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of fifth and sixth students and their parents regarding the lunches served under the revised guidelines for the National School Lunch Program. The goal of the new guidelines is to increase whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and low-fat/fat-free dairy in students daily diets (USDA, 2013c). Parents play an important role in eating behaviors and deciding whether or not the students purchase school lunch. There are few qualitative studies examining the perceptions of students and parents regarding the meals served under the National School Lunch Program along with healthy eating. The participants in this study were 45 fifth and sixth students along with 900 fifth and sixth grade parents. The students took part in focus groups and taste tests and the parents completed an online questionnaire. Themes emerged from the qualitative data from the student focus groups and parent questionnaire. The quantitative data from the parent questionnaire was analyzed for means, standard deviations and frequencies. The results revealed that students and parents are satisfied overall with the lunches provided and lack awareness of the changes that have been made to the school lunches.

Committee: Natalie Caine-Bish Ph.D., R.D., L.D. (Advisor); Angie Ha Ph.D. (Committee Member); Barbara Scheule Ph.D., R.D., L.D. (Committee Member) Subjects: Nutrition

MS, Kent State University, 2013, College of Education, Health, and Human Services / School of Health Sciences

Background: Caloric consumption combined with exercise may decrease subsequent appetite in adults, however this phenomenon has not yet been studied in children. Purpose: To assess children's appetite after eating a low-calorie meal (LC) and participating in physical activity versus eating a high-calorie meal (HC) and participating in physical activity. Methods: Children (N=19, 6-10 years old) participated in two trials. The first trial consisted of consuming a HC or LC meal at lunchtime then playing in a gymnasium for thirty minutes. In the gymnasium, children had free-choice access to physical and sedentary activities and total activity was monitored via an accelerometer. The second trial was identical to the first except the participant consumed the opposite meal. Order of the meal condition was randomized. The two meal conditions consisted of the same foods, and equivalent macronutrient distribution, however children consumed 55% less energy in the LC (291.8 ± 12.1 kcals) compared to HC (659.5 ± 101.3 kcals). Before the meal, immediately after the meal, immediately after the 30-minute activity session and four hours after the meal, the following satiety domains were assessed via visual analogue scales: prospective food consumption, hunger and fullness. A total appetite score was then calculated from these domains. Appetite Score = Hunger + Prospective Consumption + (100 – fullness) Results: Physical activity during the HC (2176 ± 884 counts·min-1) and LC (1977 ± 1013 counts·min-1) conditions was not different (p = 0.4). ANOVA revealed a significant (p = 0.045) meal condition (HC, LC) by time (pre-, immediately post-meal, post-activity, four hours post-meal) interaction for appetite. Relative to the HC condition, appetite was greater (p = 0.015) in the LC condition immediately post-meal (71 ± 74 HC, 131 ± 96 LC) and post-activity session (96 ± 66 HC, 160 ± 57 LC). There were no differences (p = 0.16) in appetite pre-meal (225 ± 63 HC, 222 ± 61 LC) (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Jacob Barkley Ph.D. (Committee Chair); Angela Ridgel Ph.D. (Committee Member); John McDaniel Ph.D. (Committee Member) Subjects: Health