Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2024, Nursing

Background: Diabetes is an independent risk factor for cognitive impairment and dementia. Social isolation and loneliness are modifiable yet understudied factors that may exacerbate the effect of diabetes on cognitive impairment. Furthermore, evidence of physiological mediators (systemic inflammation and sleep disturbance) in the relationship between social isolation, loneliness, and cognitive function is limited, highlighting the need for further research. Purpose: The aims of this study were 1) to examine the effects of social isolation and loneliness on the initial levels of cognitive function and rates of cognitive decline in older adults with diabetes, 2) to investigate the mediating effect of systemic inflammation on the longitudinal association between social isolation and cognitive function, and 3) to determine the mediating effects of physiological mediators on the associations between social isolation, loneliness, cognitive function, and to identify whether these association vary by the presence of diabetes. Methods: A secondary analysis of existing data from the University of Michigan Health and Retirement Study (HRS) was conducted. Data from participants aged 50 and over with diabetes were analyzed. This study utilized data from the Steptoe Social Isolation Index, the UCLA loneliness scale, C reactive protein results, and the Jenkins Sleep Scale to measure social isolation, loneliness, systemic inflammation, and sleep disturbances, respectively. Cognitive status was measured using data from the telephone interview. Latent growth modeling, a cross lagged panel model, and multigroup analysis within a structural equation modeling framework were used. Results: For Aim 1, social isolation and loneliness negatively affected the initial levels of cognitive function, but were not associated with a faster decline in cognitive function in older adults with diabetes over the ten year timeframe. For Aim 2, this study found reciprocal negative longitudinal (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Jie Hu (Advisor); Kathy Wright (Committee Member); Minjung Kim (Committee Member); Todd Monroe (Committee Member) Subjects: Health Care; Nursing; Public Health

Master of Arts, The Ohio State University, 1964, Graduate School

Committee: Not Provided (Other) Subjects:

Psy. D., Antioch University, 2024, Antioch Seattle: Clinical Psychology

Objectives: The 65 and older population is a growing population in the US. In this population there can be marked increases in isolation, loneliness, and depression. Polyvagal Theory holds that a greater sense of safety, security, and sense of engagement improves well-being. A key hypothesis stated that participation will lower self-report ratings of loneliness. Additional hypotheses included improving self-reported purpose in life and feelings of psychological safety. Methods/Design: The present dissertation is a quasi-experimental design, utilizing pre- and post-test measures comparing degree of loneliness, depression, purpose in life (PIL), and Neuroception of Psychological Safety Scale (NPSS) in a 6-week novel somatic-based intervention. Results: Sample consisted of 13 community-dwelling older adults (aged <65). Paired t-tests were used to determine significance of changes from pre- to post-intervention. Although no changes were statistically significant, results show small improvements in loneliness, no change in social engagement and compassion, and decrease in bodily sensations and purpose in life. Thematic analysis of participants'' weekly feedback was also conducted. Conclusion: This novel intervention contributes to an overall body of research in Polyvagal Theory practice and development of polyvagal interventions targeted at the specific community of adults 65 and older.

Committee: Melissa Kennedy (Committee Chair); Dana Waters (Committee Member); Michael Sakuma (Committee Member) Subjects: Aging; Gerontology; Technology

MA, Kent State University, 2024, College of Arts and Sciences / Department of Sociology and Criminology

Globally, loneliness is rising at the same time that social media usage (SMU) (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, TikTok) is increasing. However, drawing conclusions about the impact of SMU on loneliness has been difficult due to: 1) a lack of focus on loneliness outcomes (as opposed to general well-being outcomes), 2) an overreliance on simplistic, time-based measurements, and 3) the lack of a single theoretical perspective that can make sense of contradictory findings from the literature. The current research aims to fill in these gaps by using loneliness as an outcome measure and measures that capture time usage, type of use, purpose of use, and online network familiarity, in conjunction with the interpersonal-connection-behaviors (ICB) framework proposed by Clark et al. (2018). The ICB framework suggests that when SMU is focused on promoting connection, it is linked with positive outcomes, but that when SMU is not focused on promoting connection, it is linked to negative outcomes. Using this theoretical approach, I will further our understanding of how SMU impacts loneliness using Facebook usage data of young adults living in Bangladesh in 2021. Since the majority of studies looking at the impact of SMU on mental health have been done on western populations (U.S and Europe), this research will help to further our understanding of how SMU may be impacting loneliness in a non-western context, allowing for comparison across different cultural environments. By better understanding which online behaviors are more likely to lead to connection as opposed to loneliness, this research could potentially help users maximize the benefits of social media and help to avoid its pitfalls.

Committee: Susan Fisk (Advisor); Josh Pollock (Committee Member); Kristen Marcussen (Committee Member) Subjects: Psychology; Sociology

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Ohio University, 2024, Clinical Psychology (Arts and Sciences)

Objective: Psychological factors, such as stress, can be related to memory performance and decline over time. Social support may buffer the relationship of stress to memory performance by reducing the impact of high stress on memory for individuals with good social support. Few prior studies have examined this potential relationship, and none have examined this relationship using learning process measures. I hypothesized that social support would reduce the negative effects of stress on learning, delayed recall, learning primacy, and learning recency, whereas loneliness would increase the negative effects of stress on these variables. Exploratory analyses assessed the roles of gender and individual components of social support in these relationships. Method: Data were drawn from an archival dataset of 117 healthy, independently living middle aged and older adults (age 50-87) who participated in a stress and memory study. Relevant measures gathered from baseline study data included the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status and self-report measures of perceived stress, social support, and loneliness. Analyses included moderation analyses and linear regressions. Results: Contrary to hypotheses, social support and loneliness did not moderate the relationship of perceived stress to total learning or delayed recall scores. Social support moderated the relationship of stress to recency, where high stress was associated with better recency performance but only at high levels of social support. Both stress and loneliness independently predicted primacy, with higher loneliness associated with better primacy but high stress associated with worse primacy; the interaction was not significant. Supplemental analyses revealed no gender interactions and no significant predictive value of the subscales of social support. Conclusions: Learning process measures showed nuanced moderation effects with social support and stress that broader memory (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Julie Suhr (Committee Chair); Peggy Zoccola (Committee Member); Christopher Nguyen (Committee Member); Brian Clark (Committee Member); Dominik Mischkowski (Committee Member) Subjects: Cognitive Psychology; Psychological Tests; Psychology

MFA, Kent State University, 2024, College of the Arts / School of Art

As an artist and writer, I create work to explore my own complicated identification and disidentification with queer aesthetics, experiences, and environments through conceptual and physical processes. My thesis, entitled Someone's Sun, is a meditation on gay loneliness in the current age of gay-male sociality made material in a series of handwoven tapestries. I aim to embody a sense of self-inflicted ennui, a self-defeating act of seeking for connection while simultaneously hiding oneself behind banal / insipid landscapes. Through the remediation of photographs of sunrises and sunsets posted by gay men as placeholders for their own portraits on social media apps, I abstract and amplify saturation and composition in photoshop to create a digital painting of an otherworldly environment akin to those of Science Fiction films and television. I use my digital paintings as references, glancing up at them as I dye-paint warps with a variety of color using painterly brushstrokes, once again filtering each image through a further filter of abstraction. Through these digital and analog painting processes I explore color and scale, culminating in a final remediation by weaving with single toning color of wool and a metallic lurex weft yarn on traditional floor looms to create shimmering watercolor tapestries. I weave queer tapestries, that whisper seductively hushed desires while screaming “look at how I shine.”

Committee: Gianna Commito (Committee Member); Gianna Commito (Committee Member); Eli Kessler (Committee Member); John Paul Morabito (Advisor) Subjects: Art Criticism; Art History; Behavioral Psychology; Communication; Developmental Psychology; Fine Arts; Gender; Gender Studies; Personal Relationships; Psychology

Doctor of Philosophy, University of Toledo, 2024, Health Education

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic was a very stressful time for people all around the world. However, university and college students faced extra challenges such as having their education moved online whereas some students who lived on campus were forced to move away. Furthermore, international students faced even more challenges such as the possibility of leaving the country due to the shift to online education, maintaining their student status, traveling to and from their home countries, as well as financial concerns. Asian international students, in particular, also faced additional challenges pertaining to discrimination and safety due to the rumors of the origins of the COVID-19 virus. All college students also had to face challenges pertaining to loneliness as social distancing measures and the closure of college campuses affected the socialization of college students. As such, the presence of these stressors would have necessitated more coping skills. According to the transactional model of stress and coping, when individuals are unable to change the problem using problem-focused coping strategies, they may utilize emotion-focused coping strategies to help them feel better about the stressors. The use of alcohol has been reported to have increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, there have been inconsistent findings regarding alcohol use among college students. Undoubtedly, these stressors would have also affected the mental health of college students. Similarly, there are mixed findings on mental health outcomes between domestic and international students. Furthermore, there have been no qualitative studies, to date, of the experiences of Asian international students in navigating the COVID-19 pandemic. As such, two studies were conducted to better understand all of the above-mentioned concerns. Study one was conducted to compare domestic and international students and to examine (i) the prevalence of loneliness, alcohol use, anxiety, depression, and (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Shipra Singh (Committee Chair); Tracey Hidalgo (Committee Member); Mounika Polavarapu (Committee Member); Barbara Saltzman (Committee Member) Subjects: Mental Health

MARCH, University of Cincinnati, 2023, Design, Architecture, Art and Planning: Architecture

Rebuilding a community entails working with our neighbors, experiencing a sense of belonging, making sustainable communities, and being a part of a culture that matters to us and cares about us. This is a local action. Sociologist Robert Bellah in his book Habits of the Heart mentions how American Individualism has become unbalanced, creating a culture of separation and causing loneliness. If this is not addressed society will “collapse of its own incoherence.” When considered as a component of a wider system, our accepted culture, societal norms, and regulations contribute to feelings of isolation. American culture for housing more accurately reflects the aspirations of the mid-nineteenth century than the realities of the late twentieth century. This outdated design of suburban single-family housing is an underlying reason for housing scarcity. While the detached single-family home and the ideal of individualism are still strongly ingrained in American culture, shifting circumstances are making many people wonder if these aspects of the American dream should still be prioritized. A potential remedy for sustainable societies, isolation, loneliness and housing shortage is shared housing, an older but increasingly popular housing type. However, co-living is a new concept that has become generally accepted throughout the global housing industry in recent years. Depending on the setting and function, co-living takes various forms. Co-living is categorized as unrelated people living together. It is a residential community model that accommodates three or more biologically unrelated people living in the same dwelling unit, facilitated by a professional host. Urban Co-Living reflects the aspects of co-housing by centering dwellings around communities in which the inhabitants gather and create social interactions. The focus on social sustainability brings the user to the center of the design in terms of functionality, comfort, and accessibility. (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Elizabeth Riorden M.Arch. (Committee Member); Edward Mitchell M.Arch (Committee Chair) Subjects: Architecture

Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), University of Findlay, 2023, Education

The use of therapy dogs and animal-assisted activities are an effective alternative to the high costs and demands of traditional counseling in colleges to reach more students (Castellano, 2015). This alternative approach can help first-year college students combat loneliness and form community connections. This study assessed the impact of therapy dog interactions through animal-assisted activities on loneliness and connections made among first-year students. A mixed methodology was employed, combining surveys (UCLA Loneliness Scale Version 3) and qualitative data from interviews and observations with eleven participants. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test (N=11) indicated a significant difference (p=.00338) in pre and post-study scores on the UCLA Loneliness Scale Version 3, suggesting a potential decrease in loneliness (mean difference of 17.91). Participant interviews and observations further supported the positive impact of therapy dog interactions in fostering community connections. This study supports the presence of therapy dogs on college campuses as an effective alternative to traditional counseling, helping first-year students combat loneliness, make friends, and feel a sense of belonging. Universities are encouraged to provide accessible therapy dog teams to support first-year students.

Committee: Christine Denecker (Committee Chair); Chris Moser (Committee Member); Kara Parker (Committee Member) Subjects: Animals; Higher Education; Mental Health; Psychology; Therapy

Psy. D., Antioch University, 2023, Antioch Seattle: Clinical Psychology

Accessing mental healthcare is difficult and has become more so as demand escalated during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. In an attempt to address this problem, an established behavior therapy, Functional Analytic Psychotherapy (FAP), has recently been adapted into a group-based format called Living with Awareness, Courage, and Love (ACL), which can be disseminated inexpensively and quickly due to its reliance on laypeople, rather than clinicians, as facilitators. This randomized-controlled trial evaluated the effects of a six-week ACL group on participants' well-being across several domains. Compared to participants in the control group, those in the ACL intervention formed a significantly closer bond with their group and experienced greater improvements in their self-compassion, although there were no significant changes in their anxiety, depression, or psychological flexibility. These results indicate that ACL groups may be a promising new way to improve interpersonal connection and self-compassion when there are barriers to traditional treatments for these struggles.

Committee: Melissa Kennedy (Committee Chair); Mavis Tsai (Committee Member); Michael Toohey (Committee Member) Subjects: Clinical Psychology

Master of Science (MS), Ohio University, 2023, Experimental Psychology (Arts and Sciences)

The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on mental health, straining an already overburdened treatment system. A transdiagnostic approach to psychological treatment is ideal for treating psychological distress in a brief format, reducing clinician burden without compromising treatment outcomes. The Coping Crew pilot intervention was run to test the feasibility and acceptability of a group, remote Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) protocol targeting transdiagnostic risk factors identified as maintaining maladaptive psychopathology during the COVID-19 pandemic. Seventeen participants were run across four groups in a one-arm pilot trial. We predicted that AS, IU, loneliness, anxiety, depression, and COVID-19-related distress would be reduced for individuals who received the Coping Crew intervention. Discriminant validity was briefly explored using the AUDIT. We tested our hypotheses using a series of repeated measures ANOVAs and found significant reductions in AS (Cohen's d = 1.12; p= .001) and IU (Cohen's d = 2.25; p < .001) from baseline to post-intervention. Sizeable effect sizes were found in all outcome variables, excluding depression. Feasibility and acceptability were supported. Our results provide preliminary evidence for the efficacy of a brief, remote CBT intervention in reducing transdiagnostic risk factors. A fully powered RCT is needed to determine whether this protocol is efficacious in the reduction of loneliness, anxiety, depression, and COVID-19-related distress.

Committee: Nicholas Allan (Advisor); Darcey Allan (Advisor); Ronaldo Vigo (Committee Member) Subjects: Psychology

Master of Arts (MA), Bowling Green State University, 2022, Sociology/Applied Demography

Growing shares of older adults are cohabiting in later life, and increasing evidence suggests that cohabitation for older adults serves as an alternative to marriage. However, prior literature examining the benefits of marriage in later life have yielded mixed findings on whether individuals who are married versus cohabiting differ in psychological well-being. Furthermore, past research has lumped together first marriages with remarriages, despite remarriage being a more appropriate comparison group to cohabitors, as cohabitors are overwhelmingly previously married. Using the 2014 and 2016 Health and Retirement Study, I assessed whether older adult cohabitors and remarrieds differed on two dimensions of psychological well-being: depressive symptoms and loneliness. I also examined whether relationship quality accounted for any differences observed. Lastly, I tested whether the association between union-type and psychological well-being varied according to relationship quality. The findings indicated that cohabitation and remarriage yielded similar psychological benefits. Additionally, the association between union-type and psychological well-being did not vary according to relationship quality. Taken together, the results provide further support that cohabitation operates as an alternative to marriage in later-life.

Committee: Susan Brown Ph.D. (Committee Chair); I-Fen Lin Ph.D. (Committee Member); Jenjira Yahirun Ph.D. (Committee Member) Subjects: Demography; Families and Family Life

Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.), Xavier University, 2022, Psychology

Nearly 43% of individuals aged 60 and older experience loneliness (Perissinotto et al., 2012), which is associated with an increased risk of cognitive impairment (Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2009; Gow et al., 2007) and impairment in performance of activities of daily living (Ferreira-Alves et al., 2014; Holmen et al., 1992; Perissinotto et al., 2012). The present study examined cognition as a moderator of the relationship between loneliness and both basic and instrumental activities of daily living (ADLs; IADLs) amongst older adults. It was hypothesized that cognitive functioning would moderate the relationship between loneliness and ADLs/IADLs, such that higher cognition would lessen the impact of loneliness on ADL/IADL performance, whereas lower cognition would not afford a buffering effect. Participants (N = 106) were community and non-community dwelling adults 65 years and older who completed a series of self-report questionnaires. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that cognition moderated the relationship between loneliness and instrumental ADLs. Follow-up simple slope analyses uncovered that loneliness had a greater impact on IADL performance amongst participants with lower cognition, but still exerted significant influence on IADL performance among participants with higher cognition. It is conceivable that exposure to chronic stress and loneliness owing to the COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted older adults' functioning, over and above the protective effects afforded by their higher cognition. Further study implications, future research and limitations are discussed, including the recruitment of a small, homogeneous sample and the limited generalizability of findings.

Committee: Cynthia Dulaney Ph.D. (Committee Chair); Tammy L. Sonnentag Ph.D. (Committee Member); Reneé A. Zucchero Ph.D. (Committee Member) Subjects: Psychology

Doctor of Education, Miami University, 2020, Educational Leadership

Since the beginning of American education in the U.S., women often have been left out of educational prosperity. First, by excluding females from learning and working, and later by disregarding their capacity for educational leadership. The superintendency of American Schools is perplexing because women dominate the field of teaching whereas men hold the majority of superintendent roles. Although we are in the modern world of the twenty-first century, where women have gained the legal right to equality, gender discrimination exists. A great body of literature exists regarding female superintendents; however, there is a significant gap concerning female rural superintendents. Six female superintendents from rural school districts were invited to participate in this research study. Their stories paint unique portraits of their professional, gendered experiences as rural female superintendents. The purpose of this research study was to explore women's experiences in the rural superintendency, add female voice to history, and illuminate the prevalence of the feminine social injustice, often silenced by society's perception of the American superintendent. Each female rural superintendent's story was unique and intertwined with intersections of gender, leadership, and rurality. Through this narrative inquiry five common themes emerged: 1) The District Must be the Right Fit; 2) Other Women (Female Saboteurs); 3) The Good Old Boys' Club; 4) Loneliness; and 5) An Ethical Fighting Spirit of Determination, Grit, and Resilience. This research found that there are several challenges due to one's gender and those are amplified in the rural setting where a superintendent must wear several hats, manage a lack of resources, and survive the unique value system and culture established by each rural community. This study revealed that gender discrimination endures in the twenty-first century for female rural superintendents by both men and women, stemming from hist (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Kate Rousmaniere Dr. (Committee Co-Chair); Lucian Szlizewski Dr. (Committee Co-Chair); Sheri Leafgren Dr. (Committee Member) Subjects: Education; Education History; Educational Leadership; School Administration

Master of Science, The Ohio State University, 2020, Human Ecology: Human Development and Family Science

The population of older adults is growing in developed nations worldwide. This demographic trend, attributed to falling fertility and mortality rates, has shifted the focus of researchers toward this population, with the goal of improving health and well-being outcomes. This study focuses on the economic and mental health well-being of older adults in the United States. Previous research indicates that low income status is associated with feelings of isolation and loneliness in older adults. This study builds on that prior research by examining how subjective and objective financial changes are associated with general loneliness in the population of older adults in the U.S. Subjectively, financial stress is represented by a measure of subjective financial strain, while it is measured objectively using changes in income and assets. Data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), a sample of U.S. older adults, will be used to examine the relationship between financial changes and loneliness, and to determine if the relationship is mediated by mental health, social participation, or personality. First-differencing analysis is used to determine if household financial changes are related to changes in general loneliness. Preliminary analysis indicates that there is a relationship between the subjective measure of subjective financial strain and general loneliness, independent of mental health, social participation, and personality mediators.

Committee: Anastasia Snyder (Advisor); Michael Betz (Committee Member); Cäzilia Loibl (Committee Member) Subjects: Aging; Families and Family Life

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2019, Communication

Loneliness is a negative emotional experience that occurs due to perceived deficiency in social relationships (Peplau & Perlman, 1982). Self-disclosure of lonely feelings can facilitate coping. However, disclosing loneliness contains potential risks, especially in the contexts of social networking sites (SNSs). This dissertation aims to investigate how people perceive and interpret loneliness disclosure on SNSs, using the path model of blame as a framework (Malle, Guglielmo, & Monroe, 2014). An online experiment (n = 117) was conducted to look at: 1) the ways in which context collapse and relational closeness could predict perceived appropriateness of disclosing loneliness on SNSs, 2) how the perceived appropriateness of disclosing loneliness on SNSs impacts blame judgment, 3) the moderating effect of reason justification on the relationship between appropriateness and blame judgment, and 4) the effect of blameworthiness on subsequent support provision. Findings suggested that context collapse and relational closeness did not predict perceived appropriateness of disclosing loneliness on SNSs. The moderating effect of reason justification on the relationship between appropriateness and blame judgment did not work out. However, results showed that the perceived appropriateness of disclosing loneliness on SNSs was negatively associated with blame judgment. More blame attributed to people who disclosed loneliness on SNSs, the less willing recipients were to provide emotional, informational , and tangible support. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Committee: Jesse Fox (Advisor); David DeAndrea (Committee Member); April Li (Committee Member); Teresa Lynch (Committee Member) Subjects: Communication

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2018, EDU Policy and Leadership

This exploratory case study aims to examine what superintendents value about participating in a superintendent network. I investigated why superintendents join networks of their peers, the values and drawbacks superintendents associate with participation, and the impact of participation on the day-to-day work of superintendents. Previous research has shown positive outcomes generated by network participation, including acquiring knowledge, sharing information, offering/receiving support, and accessing resources. Literature on networking spans career fields, but relatively little research exists about superintendent networks. This study examined the perceptions and participation of eight superintendents in a professional peer network. Drawing on a wide body of network research, I argue that superintendents value networks because they provide opportunities for support that are difficult to find elsewhere. Furthermore, I argue that superintendent networks help to reduce loneliness among superintendents by increasing opportunities for social capital. This study advances our understanding of why superintendents value networks and evidences how superintendents approach network participation in order to achieve desired outcomes.

Committee: Ann Allen (Advisor); Belinda Gimbert (Committee Member); Sweetland Scott (Committee Member); Bryan Warnick (Committee Member) Subjects: Education; Educational Leadership; School Administration

Master of Arts, Marietta College, 2018, Psychology

Although lonely individuals experience ostracism fairly often, relatively little research exists on how they respond to it. In what little previous research does exist, ostracism has been found to be an almost universally negative experience for lonely and non-lonely individuals alike. Despite this the current study attempted to explore two different hypothesis that lonely individuals respond differently to ostracism than non-lonely individuals. Specifically, the hypothesis that lonely individuals experience greater social pain in an ambiguous condition that could or could not be seen as ostracism based on their own judgment (the rejection attribution bias), and the hypothesis that lonely individuals might be predisposed to a more generalized sensitivity to social pain based on their previous experiences. The study's findings confirm previous research that explicit ostracism is generally perceived as negative regardless of individual differences such as loneliness, and additionally provided indications in support of both the generalized sensitivity hypothesis and the rejection attribution bias theory in lonely individuals.

Committee: Mark Sibicky (Advisor); Christopher Klein (Committee Member) Subjects: Psychology

Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.), Xavier University, 2013, Psychology

Although the Internet provides a number of benefits to users, some individuals use the Internet in a problematic way, known as problematic Internet use (PIU). Prior research indicated a positive correlation between environmental stress and PIU (Li et al., 2010); as well as a relationship between loneliness and PIU (Ceyhan & Ceyhan, 2008; Engelberg & Sjoberg, 2004; Nalwa & Anand, 2003; Whang et al., 2003). The current study explored a moderation model to further examine the relationship between stress and PIU. Ninety-five college students completed measures of stress, loneliness, and PID. Results indicated that both stress and loneliness were significantly positively correlated with PID. Support was found for the moderation model, indicating that the interaction between stress and loneliness may best explain the relationship between stress and PIU. Those students low in loneliness did not experience a significant increase in PIU as stress increased, whereas those high in both stress and loneliness were the most vulnerable to PID. The effect size was/ = .06. Exploratory analyses indicated that gender was not significantly correlated with PIU, nor was it a significant predictor in the regression equation. Additionally, this sample reported using the Internet most frequently for emailing, social networking, and education. Future research should continue to explore more complex models of PIU.

Committee: Christine Dacey Ph.D., ABPP (Committee Chair) Subjects: Psychology

Psy. D., Antioch University, 2017, Antioch Santa Barbara: Clinical Psychology

Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) are a substantial part of the multibillion dollar gaming industry. Millions of people of all ages across the globe engage in game play. With the average gamer logging 26.6 hours a week online instead of engaging in real world activities and responsibilities, this genre has created an international epidemic. In the last ten years the literature on this topic has gained interest and momentum. Researchers continue to explore the innumerable reaches of MMORPGs and how the gamer and their community are affected. The aim of this study was to gain a more comprehensive understanding of how the gamer relates to their world, both virtual and real, on a social level. The participants were gathered online mostly from within one particular MMORPG, Perfect World International. This study surveyed 103 participants with an online questionnaire. They were and given compensation in the form of virtual money. The electronic version of this dissertation is available free at Ohiolink ETD Center, www.ohiolink.edu/etd.

Committee: Brett Kia-Keating Ed.D. (Committee Chair); Karen Lehman Ph.D. (Committee Member); Nickolas Jordan Ph.D., LMFT (Committee Member) Subjects: Educational Psychology; Mental Health; Psychology; Social Psychology; Social Research