Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2023, Educational Studies

Educational justice has traditionally been conceptualized in non-educational terms. Categories of justice with economic and political clout dominate scholarly conversations about educational justice and inform educational policymaking and practice. This leads to a narrow conceptualization of educational justice in distributive terms. The author challenges the hegemony of the dominant paradigm and advances a new paradigm for theorizing educational justice to inform educational research, policymaking, and practice. In developing this new paradigm, the dissertation first establishes the dominance of distributive justice as a guiding principle of US education policy and as a lens for theorizing educational injustice in educational research. It offers a historical analysis of federal education policy focused on the principles of justice that underpinned the policies enacted. Moreover, it presents limitations of distributive justice, thereby, establishing the need to reconsider our understanding of what constitutes an educational injustice and what policies are appropriate for disrupting such injustices. Second, the dissertation advances an account of educational injustice that centers on the obstruction of two distinctly educational tasks: knowledge acquisition and self-formation. In doing so, it reorients education policy and research toward two distinctly educational injustices: epistemic oppression and developmental coercion. It is argued that these are severe educational wrongs that also contribute to pressing social problems and injustices. The dissertation concludes by outlining implications of replacing the standard distributive paradigm with a democratic paradigm of epistemic empowerment and developmental enablement that fosters epistemic agency and disrupts the impact of harmful ideology on moral and intellectual development. It suggests that the new paradigm compels us to reconsider that nature of educational injustice and, relatedly, the locus and scope of ped (open full item for complete abstract)

MA, Kent State University, 2024, College of Arts and Sciences / Department of Sociology and Criminology

Restorative justice has emerged in the past 30 years as a promising alternative to traditional court sentencing. Prior research indicates its potential efficacy in resolving even violent offenses, as well as interest from some in pursuing such alternatives for their own cases. However, less attention has been given to the practicalities of their application. Namely, how favorably do Americans perceive restorative justice conferences, which rely on community participation, and what demographic factors predict their views? Additionally, how do offender race and violence severity impact willingness to participate as community members in a restorative justice conference? This study addresses these questions through a survey experiment of a representative convenience sample (n=425), using vignettes to test differences in race and severity. The manipulation for severity was unsuccessful, while no differences were found based on offender race. However, more conservative political affiliation, working for an income, and higher fear of crime were all significantly correlated with poorer views toward the use of restorative justice conferences over traditional court sentencing. These results indicate that offender race is unlikely to have a significant effect in recruiting community representatives. However, individuals with more conservative beliefs or higher fear of crime may be less likely to support the use of restorative justice conferences in their communities.

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2023, Social Work

This study examined the impact of a healing justice, professional development 6-hour ethics training, as an intervention designed to promote social workers' mindful self-care and professional wellbeing at the intersections of social justice work. The three aims of this study were: (1) To assess the efficacy of a healing justice training module on social workers' mindful self-care and professional wellbeing; (2) To explore study participants' views on the healing justice training on supporting their wellbeing at the intersections of self-care and social justice work in social work practice; and (3) To explore the integration of the data to capture participants' perspectives on the healing justice training. This study included pretest quantitative data collected from 86 study participants and a total of 47 study participants at posttest (N=21 Intervention Group and N= 26 Waitlist Control). Utilizing a convergent, mixed methods design, study results showed a significant interaction between the intervention effect and time on the Mindful Self Care Scale (MSCS) variable named Mindful Awareness, where there were statistically significant changes at posttest within the treatment versus the waitlist control groups p = .001 with a large effect size = .204. Qualitatively, five major themes and nine subthemes recurred, which included: A) Embodied practices – dance and drum; B) Personal care [subthemes: self-care and mindfulness and awareness]; C) Social work's effects on practitioners [subthemes: burnout and compassion fatigue, and compassion satisfaction]; D) Institutionalizing healing justice training [subthemes: social work education, social work practice, and continuing education units (CEUs)]; and E) Human diversity [subthemes social work (SWK) needs welcoming spaces for Black, Indigenous, People of Color (BIPOC) folks, and social work is social justice]. The results of this study provided confirmation relative to promising support for continuing to offer a healing jus (open full item for complete abstract)

Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.), Franklin University, 2023, Business Administration

The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the adoption of full-time remote work, driven by the need for flexibility and the challenges posed by the global health crisis. While remote work offers benefits like reduced commuting stress and increased flexibility, it also presents unique challenges that organizations must address to foster a motivated and engaged remote workforce. Organizational justice, which encompasses perceptions of fairness and equity, plays a critical role in employee motivation and commitment. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between full-time remote work, organizational justice, and turnover intention. Using a quantitative research approach, survey tools were used to assess the elements of organizational justice (distributive, procedural, and interactional) and analyze their impact on turnover intention. The findings showed that all elements of organizational justice had a significant relationship with turnover intention in full-time remote workers, with procedural justice having the strongest relationship. This suggests that remote workers' perceptions of fair procedures and processes within their organizations influence their intention to leave. The findings of this study have implications for organizations aiming to create a positive remote work culture and mitigate turnover risks by emphasizing procedural justice through transparent processes, employee participation, and fair performance evaluations. It contributes to the existing literature by highlighting the importance of organizational justice in remote work environments and emphasizing the need for organizations to adapt their practices to meet the specific needs of remote workers.

Doctor of Philosophy, University of Akron, 2022, Sociology

The public prosecutor is obligated to “ensure that justice is done” (Berger v. U.S. 1935). However, there are few guidelines for prosecutors to follow in regards to what it means to “do” justice (Bresler 1996; Cummings 2010), just as there is no single definition for justice (Gershman 1990). As such, I seek to answer the following questions in this study: First, how do criminal prosecutors describe instances of justice being done in their own words? Second, how do structural conditions enable or constrain definitions and enactments of what it means to do justice? To answer these questions, I use data collected from over 330 hours of participant observation and twenty-eight semi-structured interviews with prosecutors and support staff in a Midwestern county-level prosecutor's office. Findings reveal that prosecutors “do” justice through a Victim-Oriented Culture that emphasizes incorporating victims into case processes and decisions regarding outcomes, in addition to guiding and caring for victims throughout the life of the case. These definitions and enactments of justice are dynamic, enacted, and interactional (Amster 2012; Maynard-Moody and Musheno 2012; Smith 2001), and sometimes involve emotion practice and caring work (Erickson and Stacey 2012). These definitions and enactments are akin to Relational Justice (Pillsbury 2019) and Restorative Justice (Zehr 2013). Findings also reveal that these definitions and enactments of justice through a Victim-Oriented Culture are enabled and constricted by factors internal and external to the to the prosecutor's office itself.

Doctor of Philosophy, University of Toledo, 2019, Counselor Education (Clinical Mental Health Counseling)

Multicultural counseling competence is described in the literature as a close companion and complement to social justice (Ratts, 2011; Ratts, Singh, Nassar-McMillan, Butler, & McCoullah, 2015). Social justice in the counseling profession involves work with individuals, groups, and systems to improve the human condition by removing oppressive barriers in the environment through empowerment and advocacy (American Counseling Association, 2014; Lewis, Arnold, House, & Toporek, 2002). Calls from the profession are evident in the development of the Advocacy Competencies, the inclusion of advocacy in the 2014 ACA Code of Ethics, and 2016 CACREP training standards. Counselor trainees are expected to obtain training in multicultural counseling and social justice advocacy and engage in such practices during their profession. The following study explored social justice training, training environment supports and barriers, perception of institutional support on social justice and student beliefs on colorblind racial attitudes, social justice interest, social justice commitment, and social justice self-efficacy. Master's level trainees in CACREP accredited Clinical Mental Health Counseling and School Counseling programs were surveyed using the Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (Neville et al. 2000), Social Issues Questionnaire (Miller et al., 2009), and the Training Environment Support and Barriers scale (Miller & Sendrowitz, 2011). This study sought to identify if formal training experiences and supportive training environments influence, if at all, Masters' level counseling trainees beliefs on colorblind racial attitudes, social justice interest, commitment, and self-efficacy. Survey results did not find statistically significant differences between students that did and did not take a multicultural course, social justice course, or completed at least three conferences or workshops on social justice on their reported social justice interest, commitment, self-efficacy, or colo (open full item for complete abstract)

PhD, University of Cincinnati, 2017, Business: Business Administration

Over the last several decades, there has been a plethora of research regarding employees' experienced justice perceptions, resulting in a robust understanding of their consequences on employee attitudes and behaviors (for a recent meta-analysis, see Colquitt, Rodell, Zapata, Wesson, Scott, Long, & Conlon, 2013). Still, important “black box” elements functioning within these relationships remain underexplored. My research focused on the important role that anticipatory justice plays in unpacking this black box by presenting and testing a model of the proposed cyclical anticipatory-experienced justice relationship. I examined five key understudied elements that potentially impact employee justice perceptions. (1) The role of supervisor-enacted justice behaviors. (2) The role of anticipatory justice perceptions. (3) The role of entity- and event-based anticipatory justice perceptions. (4) The role of justice inconsistency. (5) Justice as an antecedent to early leader-member exchange (LMX) relationship formation. Relying on structural equation modeling via path analysis, my research results suggested that supervisor-enacted justice and employee-experienced justice are two distinct, but positively-related, constructs. Anticipatory informational and interpersonal (but not distributive and procedural) justice were supported as moderators of this relationship; high anticipatory justice increased the strength of the enacted-experienced justice relationship. No support was found for differences in entity- and event- based anticipatory justice effects. However, justice inconsistency was found to moderate the level 2 experienced-to-anticipatory justice relationship; high justice inconsistency strengthened this relationship. Although all four justice dimensions (distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal) were hypothesized as related to early LMX development, only procedural, informational, and interpersonal justice were supported. Findings of the study suggested (open full item for complete abstract)

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Bowling Green State University, 2015, Psychology/Industrial-Organizational

The purpose of the current study was to meta-analytically examine the relationships of organizational justice and organizational constraints with three performance criteria: task performance, organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), and counterproductive work behavior (CWB). A meta-analysis of 106 studies (n = 35699) revealed that task performance and OCB were positively related to all forms of organizational justice, but only task performance was negatively related to organizational constraints. On the other hand, CWB was negatively related to all forms of organizational justice and positively related to organizational constraints. Furthermore, different dimensions of organizational justice had differential relationships with performance criteria. Procedural and interactional justice had a weaker positive association with task performance compared to OCB. Procedural justice had a stronger positive relationship with OCB-O than OCB-I. With regard to the differential relationship between organizational constraints and performance, organizational constraints had a stronger negative relationship with task performance than OCB. Another significant finding was that negative emotions fully mediated the relationship between organizational constraints and CWB. The relationship between organizational justice with self-rated versus other-rated OCB was not significantly stronger for self-rated versus other rated OCB. Lastly, an unexpected finding was that organizational constraints had a stronger relationship with self-rated CWB than other-rated CWB. The study's implications for research and practice are discussed, and directions for future research are provided.

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2008, Teaching and Learning

Social justice discourses have been approached in two distinctive ways. One is the logocentric approach that begins deductively with an ideal concept of social justice, and the other is the grounded approach that focuses inductively on concrete examples of social injustice. Accordingly, when researchers and educators deal with social justice issues, they are inevitably engaged in a cacophony of onto-epistemological issues between the reality of social injustice and the orientation to social justice. Although there is an increasing body of research on social justice education, it is important to note that few researchers have conducted research on how teachers understand social justice and how it is related to their pedagogical practices.I conducted a qualitative study to investigate how teachers understood social injustice and constructed a concept of social justice and how it was related to their pedagogical practices for social justice. In order to conduct a study in a socially just way I made consistent efforts to bring social justice issues into methodology. My study is based on an assumption that research is trustworthy when it authorizes the power of participants who bring knowledge into the study (Foucault, 1984). I also paid special attentions to my writing as an ethical re-presentation of what I learned about and from social justice educators. In this study, I presented the findings both in their individual and collective voices. My participants consisted of eight community-nominated teachers in K-12 educational settings. The process of community nomination was not only to limit my power as a researcher, but also to authorize the community in selecting participants. My role as a researcher was not to take "the imperialist position" (Smith and Deemer, 2000, p. 890), but to build a new community of social justice educators. I was then able to "walk into" the community and "work with" the participants. Data collected from each teacher consisted of 5 semi-struc (open full item for complete abstract)

PHD, Kent State University, 2024, College of Education, Health and Human Services / School of Teaching, Learning and Curriculum Studies

This action research study honors teacher-as-researcher and utilizes qualitative methods of data collection alongside emergent design to study arts-integrated teaching and learning at a mid-sized Midwestern university in a social studies methods course. The thinking and learning of both pre-service teachers and the teacher educator/researcher are analyzed using constructivist grounded theory, constant comparative and art-based methods. Findings offer a holistic view of teaching and learning including: 1) pre-service teachers' learning experiences as developing social studies classroom teachers and arts-integrated learners to expand capacity in order to see and think differently, communicate and express their thinking and learning diversely, and to engage challenges and discomfort divergently within alternative, transformative pedagogical practices; and 2) the teacher educator/researcher's learning experiences to expand capacity in developing a meta-teaching action plan toward teaching the arts-integrated social studies methods course and altering the process of the dialectic action research spiral within action research to become the dialectic action research lemniscate. Implications relevant in social studies teacher education and secondary social studies education include, transformative learning experiences and expanded capacity for pre-service teachers as they developed altered perspectives about arts-integrated teaching and learning as well as teaching civics/citizenship and engaging civic issues of equity and justice in the social studies and the early development of a partial framework for arts-integrated teaching and learning in social studies education. Implications germane to action research methodology reside in modifying the process of the dialectic action research spiral in offering the expanded capacity of the dialectic action research lemniscate as an alternative recursive process for action researchers.

Bachelor of Arts (BA), Ohio University, 2023, Environmental Studies

This thesis seeks to understand Appalachian farmers' and non-profit professionals' perceptions of the state of the food system and their place within to identify ways to move forward with food justice work and highlight some of the initiatives already happening in the region. Through a series of in-depth interviews with five regional foodway experts and analyses of relevant organizations' mission statements, I provide insight into the work being done in Appalachia to navigate post-coal economies and pressures against the success of local food systems, the way this work shapes identities and perceptions of and relationships with land and food, and where folks see opportunities for additional work and progress. My findings emphasize a need for greater societal awareness of injustices within the food system and more opportunities for communities to mobilize and regain agency over their livelihoods and food sovereignty.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Ohio University, 2023, Counselor Education (Education)

Social justice advocacy is a necessary role for counselors. It is a part of their identity and ethical obligations to engage in advocacy with and on behalf of any individuals and communities experiencing injustice related to systemic disenfranchisement stemming from marginalized status due to race, gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, and social economic status among others. To promote social justice in counselors, counselor education programs are increasingly emphasizing the integration of social justice pedagogy in counselor training programs. The diversity among counselor trainees and faculty presents simultaneous experiences of both privilege and oppression and this creates a challenge in determining how students develop specific interests and commitment to social justice. The purpose of this study was to explore the nature of the relationships between the social justice training environment, social justice self-efficacy, social justice outcome expectations and social justice interest and commitment among masters counseling students. The conceptualization of the development of social justice interest and commitment was based on the social cognitive career framework. The current study examined the relationship between the linear combination of social justice training environment, social justice self-efficacy, social justice outcome expectations and social justice interest and commitment. The study also examined the amount of variation in social justice commitment explained by social justice training environment, social justice self-efficacy, social justice outcome expectations and social justice interest. Finally, the study identified the most robust predictors of social justice commitment among the 116 participants in the study. Based on the findings of the study, there was a positive significant relationship between social justice self-efficacy, social justice outcome expectations and social justice interest with social justice outcome expectations bei (open full item for complete abstract)

Doctor of Philosophy, University of Toledo, 2019, Educational Theory and Social Foundations

The main purpose of this dissertation is to analyze the complex developmental and conflict prevention challenges in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria as well as the role education can play in the pursuit of justice in that context from within the theoretical framework of Amartya Sen's capability approach to justice. The capability approach to justice is grounded in the idea of the realization of a conception of the good conceived as substantive freedom, as a combination of the development of internal capacity with the provision of substantive social opportunities for people to do and be what they have reason to value. It is argued that the capabilities approach is the most appropriate theoretical framework for articulating the diagnosis and remedies of injustice in the context of the Niger Delta as compared to Rawlsian and Utilitarian theories of justice. The evaluative standard employed in the analysis is how well a theoretical framework of justice diagnoses and addresses the resource conversion problem, the problem of differential resource conversion which undermines human well-being, is at the core of the Niger Delta's developmental challenges. Furthermore, it is argued that a capability-based educational approach, aligned with progressive and social reconstructive philosophical principles, has the potential to empower the people to pursue social justice in the Niger Delta through the facilitation of public reasoning and deliberation.

PhD, University of Cincinnati, 2018, Business: Business Administration

Much of the literature on justice in organizations is based on an implicit assumption that employees' fairness perceptions stem primarily from the decisions and/or actions of a supervisor and/or the organization. Recent research has suggested that team members can also serve as a source of justice in the workplace; however, the few published empirical studies of team-related justice have produced mixed results about whether team-related justice perceptions follow the traditional dimensions of justice (i.e., distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice), and have yielded few findings about how team-related justice perceptions form, their nature, or their outcomes. Using a qualitative design, I inductively investigated unit-level justice perceptions within teams (intrateam justice) and between teams (interteam justice). My results show that intrateam and interteam justice perceptions stem from congruency with or discrepancy from expected behaviors shaped by teams' unique cultural elements. These expected behaviors are enacted through automaticity and monitored via peer pressure and are perceived as fair if they align with expectations and unfair if they do not. Moreover, I found that these perceptions generally align with existing justice dimensions (i.e., distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational). Perceptions of intrateam and interteam fairness resulted in positive outcomes such as getting along better and paying it forward while perceptions of interteam unfairness resulted in negative outcomes such as retaliation and stigmatization.

Master of Arts (MA), Bowling Green State University, 2017, Psychology/Clinical

The present study explored the nature of social justice discussions on the social networking site Tumblr using publicly available data from Tumblr posts generated between March 16, 2016 and March 30, 2016. Posts were self-identified by users with at least one of five common hashtags related to social justice identified in a pilot study on Tumblr. These hashtags were #Black Lives Matter, #Feminism, #Racism, #Social Justice, and #SJW, an abbreviation for “social justice warrior” a phrase used to label individuals who engage in social justice discussions online. Findings indicated that posts about social justice are common on Tumblr with 15,160 public posts created by 8,794 users across the two weeks. However, not all posts reflect a positive attitude toward social justice with 8.6% of posts expressing disagreement or even hostility toward movements promoting equality. Data from the present study were compared to data collected in the pilot study to describe consistency and differences in results using the same methodology at two different time points for two different lengths of time. Implications of study findings for clinical and research purposes are discussed.

Doctor of Philosophy, University of Toledo, 2017, Educational Theory and Social Foundations

The focus of this dissertation is on the work processes and activities that social justice leaders engage in while creating, managing, and leading social justice organizations. I argue that it is possible to create an overarching process of work processes and activities from the successful experiences of social justice leaders that have created, managed, and led successful social change organizations. This overarching process provides current and future leaders, particularly those leaders new to creating SCOs, a road map for the work processes and activities required to be successful.

Bachelor of Arts (BA), Ohio University, 2016, Anthropology

This study investigates the current state of informal justice initiatives in West Belfast communities in Northern Ireland. After emerging from thirty years of internal armed conflict between politically and ideologically divided groups, Northern Ireland has grappled with restoring peace and promoting reconciliation through institutional reform, the demilitarization of armed factions, cross-community projects, and capacity building initiatives. As the peace process has unfolded, critical conversations concerning the need for non-violent and non-discriminatory crime control have been taking place. These conversations addressed vital concerns such as the needs for police reform, an end to paramilitary punishment, and a means of bridging the gap between local and state-led crime control models. As a result, new modes of conflict resolution have been adopted and legitimized in the seventeen years since the peace agreement. This research project employs ethnographic methods including interviews, participant observation, and document analysis collected throughout nine weeks of fieldwork in Belfast to assess how conflicting notions of justice, crime, and authority contribute to the continuing role of such local justice initiatives. This project uses the literature on transitional justice, legal pluralism, and alternative sources of authority to inform an ethnographic study of informal justice initiatives in Belfast, as it analyzes the manner in which local actors claim or are given authority over crime, conflict, and crisis as they work to provide access to justice outside the parameters of the formal legal system.

Ed.D., Antioch University, 2024, Education

The aim of this dissertation is to investigate how a critical understanding of language use, language ideologies, and linguicism can influence educators' praxis and identities. Specifically, the research explores how Critical Language Awareness (CLA) impacts educators' praxis, their lingua-cultural identities, and their relationships with language and linguicism towards planetary justice. These inquiries were examined through participants' involvement in a 6-week teacher educator course designed by this researcher entitled Humane Language Education. The course aimed to enable participants to analyze and address language injustices individually, communally, and globally. Unexamined language biases erode linguistic and cultural diversity, disseminate violence and discrimination, and impact biological life on earth. This dissertation addresses the critical need for examining these issues within teacher education, filling literature gaps in language education, critical pedagogy, and trans/multilingualism. Research from the course generated three research papers presented in Chapter IV: Findings. The first paper, “Towards Language Justice: Teachers Using CLA and Trans/Multilingualism to Shift Praxis,” examines the dialects of language use, language ideologies, and linguicism in the contexts of participants' roles as humane educators, exploring how CLA and trans/multilingual skills empowered educators to address linguicism. The second, “Exploring Lingua-Cultural Identities of Educators through CLA and Trans/Multilingual Competencies,” explores the impact of these skills on educators' lingua-cultural identities. The third, “Humane Educators' Visions of Languages' Roles in Planetary Justice,” offers a thematic analysis of educators' perspectives on language in the context of planetary liberation. Critical Pedagogy and Transformative Learning paradigms provide the theoretical framework. This research posits the transformative potential of CLA and trans/multilingual competenc (open full item for complete abstract)

Ph.D., Antioch University, 2024, Leadership and Change

The correctional officer (CO) has one of the most critical roles in the correctional setting and is one of the least studied topics amongst criminal justice professionals (Butler et al., 2018). In the United States, a CO's primary responsibility is to ensure the safety and well-being of an incarcerated individual and the staff that work in the prison setting (Cheek, 1984). Paradoxically, in the United States, the CO works in an organizational system based on deprivation and punishment toward incarcerated people. The United States Prison system's current structure does not support rehabilitation efforts of incarcerated people and ultimately impacts any attempts at a successful re-entry into the community (Ahalt et al., 2019). Furthermore, this punitive-oriented organizational structure has acute and deleterious effects on the mental and physical health of the CO. This study used critical incident technique to examine humanizing interactions between corrections officers and incarcerated people, from the perspective of the COs. Participants were asked to identify moments where they felt an incarcerated person (IP) saw their (the COs) humanity, they saw an IPs humanity, and suggestions regarding how corrections leaders could further support a humanizing approach. Findings included three overarching themes which describe the essence of these humanizing interactions: Being Emotionally Available, Responding with Active Support, and Interacting with Intention. Exploration of these critical incidents also revealed that COs experienced a range of positive outcomes from taking a humanizing approach. The goal of the study was to gain insight to the humanizing practices of COs in the United States from the officers' perspectives, which is largely underrepresented. This dissertation concludes with recommendations for COs and corrections leaders to further support and develop humanistic approaches to corrections culture and practice. This dissertation is available in open access (open full item for complete abstract)

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Wright State University, 2024, Human Factors and Industrial/Organizational Psychology PhD

Despite there being many meta-analyses on organizational justice in the last 25 years, no meta-analysis has focused on overall justice, a global perception of fairness in organizations. In light of this, my dissertation is a meta-analysis focused on the construct validity of overall justice and its integration with key models of organizational justice. To do this, I identified 183 independent samples from across the globe that use Ambrose and Schminke's (2009) perceived overall justice scale. From there, I used a combination of traditional meta-analytic techniques and meta-analytic structural equation modelling to test my hypotheses. Foremost, I found that overall justice converges with perceptions of justice rule adherence within the environment (mean r = .56) and perceptions of social exchange quality (mean r = .59). I also found that overall justice partially mediates the effects of justice rule adherence in most cases. In addition, I found that social exchange quality, and positive and negative affect are consistent mediators of the effects of overall justice onto job performance. In sum, my findings support the construct validity of overall justice as a measure of global organizational justice. Based on my investigation, I call for future research into the nature of reciprocity in response to overall (in)justice that can incorporate both affect and social exchange mechanisms.