Master of Arts (MA), Bowling Green State University, 0, History

Scholars have long prized Mercy Otis Warren as a subject of historical study because of her extensive correspondence, which shows how elite women expressed their support of the American Revolution. In this thesis, I show that her letters reveal something more fundamental than her patriotic impulse – they show her fear of losing her elite position. I demonstrate this by applying the insights of the history of emotions to the letters Mercy Otis Warren wrote between 1769 and 1780. In these letters, Mercy Otis Warren expressed the emotions of “spirit” and “sentiment” towards her family members, her community of Plymouth, and the Revolutionary cause sweeping over New England. But she expressed herself most passionately about her family's elite status and cultural power. Her letters reveal that Mercy was a product of her time, her class, and her family. In today's terms, we would call her “entitled.” Methodologically, this thesis draws on insights from social history, gender history, and the history of emotions. I place Mercy's correspondence (roughly sixty letters written and received in the period under study) into the context of her relationships with family, friends, and community. She was passionate in her letters because she and her correspondents were facing the destruction of their privileged lives. I argue that understanding Mercy Otis Warren's emotions is critical to understanding her determination to maintain her elite status (chapter 2), her unquestioning acceptance of the gender expectations of a woman in her position (chapter 3), her firm support of the Revolutionary cause (chapter 4), and her attempts to shape the nation's memory of the Revolution afterwards (chapter 5). Historians have implicitly argued that Mercy challenged the gender expectations of her day, but I find that she did not. She simply followed the lead of her male kin, who were extremely well educated and politically powerful.

Committee: Ruth Wallis Herndon Ph.D. (Advisor); Andrew Schocket Ph.D. (Committee Member); Christine Eisel (Committee Member) Subjects: American History; Gender; History; Womens Studies

Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA), Ohio University, 2019, Studio Art

This thesis is the written component of a larger project which includes the website: womensworkdesign.com. This project applies the research methodologies of feminist art historians to a study of graphic design history, then uses the tools of digital communication for public dissemination. This paper seeks not only to resurrect female graphic designers excluded from the historical canon but to question the nature of their exclusion. Through an applied analysis of the current model of graphic design history this paper explores three case studies to conceptualize and demonstrate a more inclusive historical approach. This approach explores themes that each of these female graphic designers were engaging with through their lives and work and introduces that information to the digital space using womensworkdesign.com.

Committee: Dori Griffin (Advisor) Subjects: Communication; Design; Fine Arts; Gender Studies

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Ohio University, 2008, Curriculum and Instruction (Education)

This exploratory and descriptive study illuminates the lives of African American female teachers who lived in the upper Ohio River Valley between 1875 and 1915. Existing current research depicts teachers in the South and urban North during this period. This study highlights teachers from northern, small to midsized cities in order to bring them into the historical record and direct attention to their contributions to education. The focus of this historical, intrinsic, embedded, single-case case study was on the social profile, educational opportunities, teaching experiences, and support networks of Pocahontas Simmons Peyton, Susie Simmons (Jones?), Bernadine Peyton Sherman, Mary Peyton Dyson, Anna Stevens Posey, and Elizabeth Jennie Adams Carter. Three additional themes emerged from the data. They involved inconsistent community attitudes, male-defined perspectives, and multigenerational connections and successes.The case for this study was bounded by time, place, race, gender, and occupation. The units of analysis were selected from a pool of 27 names using the maximum-variation purposeful sampling method. The central research question asked how the women operated within the educational systems of the three-state area of western Pennsylvania, northern West Virginia, and southeastern Ohio. The researcher employed multiple methods of data collection in order to triangulate the data and provide rich description of the women within the context of the bounded system. The findings suggest that these women were part of a tradition of exemplary service to education. Although they were unique, these women shared characteristics with teachers in other areas of the country. With one exception, they worked in segregated schools with poor to adequate resources. Each woman had a range of educational options open to her, but not all options were available in each location. The women were skilled at using support networks and their own abilities to navigate within the educational (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: David F. Bower Ed.D. (Committee Chair); Rosalie Romano Ph.D. (Committee Member); Adah Ward Randolph Ph.D. (Committee Member); James O'Donnell Ph.D. (Committee Member) Subjects: African Americans; American History; Black History; Education History; Womens Studies

PHD, Kent State University, 2023, College of Communication and Information

The objective of this historical study of Akron, Ohio's Saalfield Publishing Company during its years of operation (1900-1976) is to illuminate the role this company played within Ohio, but also within the larger United States publishing community and to investigate the role women played within this organization. Utilizing a theoretical framework that draws from Bourdieu (1984, 1993), Darnton (1982), Gramsci (1988), feminist scholars (Collins, 2000; Cott, 1987; Crenshaw, 1989, 1991; hooks, 1981), Hall (2007), Williams (1962), McRobbie (1986), Adams and Barker (1993) and Kaestle and Radway (2009), this dissertation introduces a new communication model for understanding this particular children's publishing company, but also for understanding the larger children's publishing industry which flourished during Saalfield's era. This work interrogates the power structure within and around the publishing company and within its communications sphere. Historical methods were utilized throughout this study to locate and interrogate the data, utilizing the frameworks of Startt and Sloan (2003), Cox (1996), Kerr, Loveday and Blackford (1990), and Tanselle (1971). Catalogs of the Saalfield Publishing Company, Saalfield Publishing Company products, Akron City Directories, newspapers, journals, books, websites and databases were consulted. This study provides a deeper understanding of the Saalfield Publishing Company, its products, players and position, and creates a model to interpret the relationships found within and throughout its reach. It illuminates the role of women and the marginalized within the company and the surrounding community, while developing a clearer picture of its pioneering role and commercial success in the field of children's literature from 1900-1976.

Committee: Marianne Martens (Committee Chair); Miriam Matteson (Committee Member); Karen Gracy (Committee Member); Jennifer MacLure (Committee Member); Ellen Pozzi (Committee Member) Subjects: Communication; Economic History; Gender Studies; History; Information Science; Library Science; Literature; Marketing; Mass Media; Womens Studies

BA/MA, Walsh University, 2021, Education

Professionally, female artists are underrepresented in museums. This disproportionate representation stems from the lack of historical female artists presented in visual arts classrooms. Since adolescents are directly impacted by same-gender role models, it is essential for young women to be exposed to works by professional female artists while their brains are still developing. If female students are presented with successful role models who share their identity, they are more likely to choose careers in professional art. Thus, my research focuses specifically on the inclusion of three historical female artists within visual arts classrooms in Ohio public schools. I selected three diverse artists to represent sequential periods of time: Sofonisba Anguissola of the 16th-17th century, Mary Cassatt of the 19th century, and Frida Kahlo of the 20th century. My research seeks to answer the following questions: Who are these significant female artists? What are their major contributions? How did they develop their skills? Why have female artists traditionally used the genre of self-portraiture to assert their place in society? Why is it important to study these female artists? I will then propose why the inclusion of female artists should be mandated at the state level for Visual Arts classrooms in grades 9-12.

Committee: Katherine Brown (Advisor); Jennifer Green (Other) Subjects: Art Criticism; Art Education; Art History

Master of Science (MS), Ohio University, 2020, Journalism (Communication)

This biographical thesis examines the journalistic work of Australian war correspondent Kate Webb during the Vietnam War. In addition, this thesis explores her role as a visiting professional at the E.W. Scripps School of Journalism. Through the lens of feminist standpoint theory, an in-depth qualitative historical ideological textual analysis of Webb's journalistic work underscores her role as a trailblazing female reporter covering an American war from an international perspective. Webb asserted herself and was accepted into the male-dominated field of war correspondence. As a female covering the war, she provided readers with the often-forgotten aspects of war: the human-interest angle. Through an assessment of a broad scale of primary documents, including the articles that she wrote from 1967 to 1975, and oral history interviews with former students and colleagues in academia and war correspondence, this thesis seeks to illustrate that Webb challenged the traditional role of war correspondents by reporting on human-interest stories and occupying spaces normally dominated by men. As a visiting professional, she brought her lived experiences as a reporter into the classroom.

Committee: Aimee Edmondson (Committee Chair); Michael Sweeney (Committee Member); Alexander Godulla (Committee Member) Subjects: Journalism; Mass Communications; Mass Media

Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA), Ohio University, 2016, Theater

This thesis explores the effect of gender confinement and restrictive sexual roles for women in a one-woman show, A Woman Alone by Franca Rame and Dario Fo (1977). This thesis consists of a scholarly analysis of the play and its literary, biographical, and historical contexts; a performance of A Woman Alone on February 4, 5 and 6, 2016; and a reflection on the production. The written thesis consists of four chapters, the first of which is an introduction to the playwrights, especially Rame, and the position of women within Italian culture in the 1970s. The second chapter analyzes A Woman Alone through the lens of Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique to contextualize the play. The third chapter uses the prominent feminist dramas Hedda Gabler, by Henrik Ibsen, and Machinal, by Sophie Treadwell, to further illuminate Fo and Rame's work and contextualize the women's liberation movement. The final chapter is the reflection on the process of producing and performing in A Woman Alone, directed by Professor David Haugen. The appendix includes the production's program note, photographs from the production and other notable pictures, as well as the translation of A Woman Alone that I used. Through this thesis, I demonstrate the damage done to women because of societal standards and taboos against female sexuality, which in turn necessitate the production of plays such as A Woman Alone that criticize those standards and work to eliminate such taboos.

Committee: William Condee Dr. (Advisor); Carey Snyder Dr. (Advisor) Subjects: Fine Arts; Theater; Theater History; Theater Studies; Womens Studies

Master of Arts (MA), Bowling Green State University, 2014, Art/Art History

Ancient Egypt has long fascinated the world with its art and architecture. People are most intrigued by the pyramids, tomb paintings, and mummies. The works that are usually studied came from the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. Other than Egyptologists, most people are unaware of the time periods that fell between these great kingdoms. Early scholars named them the Intermediate Periods; they were times of de-unification between Upper and Lower Egypt, a politically chaotic state. They were thought of as times that did not produce great artworks, so until the last few decades these periods were not often studied. This thesis uses three case studies to recreate the journey of a coffin belonging to three separate Third Intermediate Period non-royal women. The first case study covers the mummification process, the commissioning and decoration of a coffin set and the process involved in readying the coffin set for the funeral procession. The second case study analyzes the journey of the visible outer coffin during the funeral procession from the embalmment house to the tomb. The third case study continues the journey a Third Intermediate Period coffin set would experience by examining what happens with the coffin set as it lay in the tomb. Through the lens of Gaze Theory and Object Agency Theory this thesis examines Third Intermediate Period non-royal female Egyptian coffins and explored their social origin of interchangeability (between object and subject). The Agency of these coffins supported and made possible social interactions and relationships. The Gaze of the coffins presented in this thesis was one of desire, a non-sexualized desire. It demanded complex relationships; trust that it would protect and carry the deceased into the afterlife, assurance that in could be the double of the deceased, belief that it was a conduit between the dead and the living. These coffins helped to structure the ancient Egyptian’s perceptions; constraining or rele (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Stephanie Langin-Hooper PhD. (Advisor); Rebecca Skinner Green PhD. (Committee Member) Subjects: Ancient History; Archaeology; Art History

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2014, Theatre

Since women first took to the professional stage, actresses have been objects of admiration and condemnation as well as desire and suspicion. Historically marginalized figures, actresses challenged notions of acceptable female behavior by, among other (more scandalous) things, earning their own income, cultivating celebrity, and being sexually autonomous. Performance entailed an economic transaction of money for services provided, inviting the double meanings of "entertainer" and "working" woman. Branding the actress a whore not only signaled her (perceived) sexual availability, but also that she was an unruly woman who lived beyond the pale. The history of the actress in the West is also complicated by the tradition of the all-male stage, which long prevented women from participating in their own dramatic representations and devalued their claim to artistry once they did. Theatrical representations of actresses necessarily engage with cultural perceptions of actresses, which, historically, have been paradoxical at best. In this dissertation I identify a sub-genre of drama that I call actress-plays, and using this bibliography of over 100 titles I chronicle and analyze the actress as a character type in the English-speaking theatre, arguing that dramatizations of the professional actress not only reflect (and fuel) a cultural fascination with actresses but also enact a counter-narrative to conventional constructions of femininity. Using the advent of the actress in the Restoration as a historical touchstone, this study weaves together theatre and women's history, literary criticism, and cultural studies to analyze the ways in which staging the actress highlights and interrogates the complex and layered nature of gendered prejudice that has historically marginalized actresses and thwarted female progress. This dissertation features detailed examinations of key actress-plays from different eras, including but not limited to J. Palgrave Simpson's World and Stage (18 (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Lesley Ferris (Advisor) Subjects: Gender Studies; Literature; Theater; Theater History; Womens Studies

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2009, Women's Studies

In this dissertation, I use contemporary Chinese immigrant women's visual and literary narratives to examine gender, race, ethnicity, migration, immigration, and sexual experiences in various power discourses from a transnational perspective. In particular, I focus on the relationship between body memories and history, culture, migration and immigration portrayed in these works. I develop and define “the sent-down body,” a term that describes educated Chinese urban youths (also called sent-down youths in many studies) working in the countryside during the Chinese Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). The “sent-down body” in this context and in my analysis is the politicized and sexualized migrant body. The term also describes previous sent-down youths' immigration experiences in the United States, because many of them became immigrants in the post-Cultural Revolution era and are usually described as “overseas sent-down youths” (yangchadui). Therefore, the “sent-down body” is also the immigrant body, and it is sexualized and racialized. Moreover, the “sent-down body” is gendered, but I study the female “sent-down body” and its represented experiences in specific political, historical, cultural, and sexual contexts. By using “the sent-down body” as an organizing concept in my dissertation, I introduce a new category of analysis in studies of Chinese immigrants' history and culture. I use the term “the sent-down body” to explore a new terrain to study representations of historical, cultural, and political experiences in the context of body memories and coerced or voluntary human movement in physical or symbolic locations. The focus on Chinese immigrant women's cultural production also helps enrich studies of new Chinese immigrants' experiences by treating them as part of Asian American immigrants' experiences.

Committee: Linda Mizejewski PhD (Committee Chair); Sally Kitch PhD (Committee Co-Chair); Rebecca Wanzo PhD (Committee Member); Judy Wu PhD (Committee Member) Subjects: Womens Studies

Doctor of Philosophy, The Ohio State University, 2003, East Asian Languages and Literatures

This dissertation is a historical ethnographic study on the act of reading in late imperial China. Focusing on the practice and representation of reading, I present a mosaic of how reading was conceptualized, perceived, conducted, and transmitted from the tenth to the eighteenth centuries. My central argument is that reading, or dushu, was an indispensable component in the tapestry of cultural life and occupied a unique position in the landscape of social history in late imperial China. Reading is not merely a psychological act of individuals, but also a set of complicated social practices determined and conditioned by social conventions. The dissertation consists of six chapters. Chapter 1 discusses motivation, scope, methodology, and sources of the study. I introduce a dozen different Chinese terms related to the act of reading. Chapter 2 examines theories and practices of how children were taught to read. Focusing on four main pedagogical procedures, namely memorization, vocalization, punctuation, and explication, I argue that the loud chanting of texts and the constant anxiety of reciting were two of the most prominent themes that ran through both the descriptive and prescriptive discourses on the history of reading in late imperial China. Chapter 3 delineates a culture of reading dominated by males through a discussion of key elements of this culture: reading habits, the treatment of books, the hygiene of reading, reading paraphernalia, the elite conceptions of reading, and popular attitudes toward reading. Chapter 4 investigates women's reading, including their road to literacy, and representations of what and how they read. I argue that what caused the growing patriarchal anxiety over women's education during the late imperial period was not the rise in female literacy or the growth of female erudition, but rather the expansion of women's literate practices, particularly writing in the sphere of men. Chapter 5 probes the questions of why and how non-Han peopl (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: GALAL WALKER (Advisor) Subjects:

Master of Science (MS), Ohio University, 2011, Biological Sciences (Arts and Sciences)

Variation in acquisition of resources across the lifetime of a female, as well as species differences in allocation of resources to life history traits, can interact to produce variation in female mate preferences. By examining the influence of resources, it is possible to understand how variation in mate preference is adaptive. I first investigated how diet manipulation during juvenile development and maternal effects influenced mate preference for two male traits, male size and male symmetry, in Xiphophorus multilineatus. While diet influenced preference for male size, maternal effects influenced preference for male symmetry. I then compared how diet influenced preference in X. multilineatus to preference in X. variatus, a species with a potentially different life history strategy. I found that X. variatus appears to have a higher reproductive effort than X. multilineatus, and that their preference for male size was not influenced by diet, which could be predicted if female preference is a component of reproductive effort. These studies suggest that to understand adaptive variation in female mate preference, both life history strategy and the specific male trait being assessed needs to be considered.

Committee: Molly Morris Ph.D. (Advisor); Donald Miles Ph.D. (Committee Member); Kelly Johnson Ph.D. (Committee Member) Subjects: Behavioral Sciences; Biology; Evolution and Development

Doctor of Education (EdD), Ohio University, 2007, Cultural Studies in Education (Education)

The purpose of this dissertation is to explore the experiences and perceptions of female dropouts in Botswana and the role of education in their lives. All over the world, educators have struggled with the problem of students dropping out of school before they complete their program of study. Prior literature suggests that there are many factors involved in causing students to drop out including weak academic study skills which prevent students from proceeding to the next level. Making little headway, these students often become discouraged about the prospects of graduating and drop out of school. Some face social challenges such as becoming pregnant, encountering impersonal schools, or living under non-conducive conditions at home. It seems that this misfortune befalls the female child more often than her male counterpart. Though young drop outs are a problem throughout the world, this study focuses on a section of a city in Botswana where there are very few opportunities or institutions concerned with preventing young dropouts. Moreover, there is little available to assist female dropouts with continuing their studies. For my research I used the case study and portraiture methods along with interviews, observations, and analyzing documents for a deeper understanding of the experiences of those young women I encountered. Once my research was complete I interpreted the data to search for recurring and emerging themes. I also used the case study method to better understand the school as an organization. I observed daily activities focusing on those that contributed to retaining or pushing the female students out of the education system. My study established the challenges that female students face in school and at home. The study revealed limited communication between the young women who dropped out and their parents; the transference of responsibility of child rearing practices to the teachers; cultural factors such as early marriages, intergenerational relationship (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Arlie Woodrum (Advisor) Subjects:

MA, Kent State University, 2012, College of Arts and Sciences / Department of History

The ideology of Republican motherhood, a political philosophy that equated patriotism with gendered social constructions of womanhood, within the early years of the French Third Republic, influenced the implementation of state mandated girls' education in the metropole. Expanding upon already existing gendered cultural constructions of womanhood and the social role of French women, politicians sought to promote the concept of Republican motherhood in the textbooks of school girls to prepare them for their future role as mothers of strong and loyal French citizens. The ideology of patriotic womanhood, under the Third Republican government, was not only a guiding principle for domestic policy, but was also intrinsic to French colonial policy in Algeria. Through the use of a common nineteenth-century European practice known as woman-to-woman medical care, Dr. Dorothee Chellier, a female physicians under the auspice of the colonial government provided medical care to indigenous women in Algeria. Chellier published multiple written accounts of her medical advocacy for indigenous women's health care and her account clearly demonstrates that the ideology of Republican motherhood was a factor in her participation in the medical missions as well as an important facet within the Republican government's policy of assimilating the indigenous population of Algeria by catering to the women within the Berber tribes and predicting that they would not only personally recognize the benefice of French medical care, but pass on these beliefs to their children. Chellier and the Algerian colonial governor sought to assimilate the indigenous population to French social and economic frameworks, but also to ameliorate the fractious environment between the European colonial settlers, indigenous groups, and the French military. Thus, Republican motherhood was a framework used in the metropole and in the colonial context by Republican politicians who sought to harness the power of a mother's i (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Rebecca Pulju PhD (Advisor) Subjects: European History

Master of Arts (MA), Bowling Green State University, 2009, History

The focus of the study was to theorize and answer the question of why existing fashion theory in the U.S., as well as abroad, has not tackled the question of American womanhood and citizenship as evidenced in the images of the WACs and WAVES during WWII. Thorough examination of original source materials from pamphlets, recruiting booklets, memoirs, magazine articles, books, case studies,editorials, letters, photos and scrapbooks, a study of fashion has shown historical connections between existing gender systems, social orders, and political ideologies in WWII America. The present study focused on how women's relationships to fashion transformed the evaluation of women's roles and status during WWII and what clothing and adornment meant concerning women in the armed forces. The research also examined the concept of the new woman, and explored how the U.S. government successfully constructed a female appearance that satisfied both public and private concerns.The ways in which women's roles and status changed during WWII was the result of the government promoting visual identity that typified traditional gender ideology and feelings of national belonging as women contributed to an American victory in the armed forces. An evaluation of fashion was important to see how life in WWII America changed in ways that no other sources of material culture could show. The use of original research material and its application contributes to and builds upon existing scholarship on WWII as well the development of the WACs (Women's Army Corps) and WAVES (Women Accepted for Voluntary Emergency Service). Not only is cultural and social history examined through the creation of WAC and WAVE uniforms but the social conditions, the political power shifts, as well as how the civilian population and female military personnel viewed themselves. Research shows design changes in uniforms of the WACs and WAVES by a number of interested parties successfully reconciled the initial discord which ar (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Beth Griech-Polelle Dr. (Advisor); Susan Voso-Lab Dr. (Committee Member); Stephen Charter (Committee Member) Subjects: American History; Armed Forces; Gender; History; Textile Research; Womens Studies

Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), Bowling Green State University, 2008, Leadership Studies

This life history study provides insight into the career paths of six females who attained the highest career level – president – in their organizations by exploring the influence of mentoring, family support, and networking in their career trajectories.Three female senior leaders from Health Care and three female senior leaders from Higher Education in the Midwest participated in the study. The leaders' personal experiences were captured in narrative form through personal interviews with the researcher and coded and analyzed for patterns and themes. Daniel J. Levinson's adult development stages (Levinson, Darrow, Klein, Levinson and McKee, 1978) were used to frame the four phases of career progression in the participant's lives and provide a foundation for a conceptual model depicting the influence of mentoring, family support and networking. Findings showed that the support of family was apparent throughout the female senior leaders' lives and their career trajectories. Mentors were most prevalent during pre-adult, early adult and the first part of middle adult stages. As the careers of the female leaders progressed into the later parts of early adult and throughout the middle adult stages, the importance and active use of networking was critical to obtain and maintain their current senior leadership position. Three themes emerged in this study: (1) Informal mentoring facilitated the women's climb up the administrative ladder to senior levels, (2) Strong family support was essential throughout the women's career trajectories, and (3) Networking was important as a career management strategy. Recommendations include that employers integrate mentoring and networking programs into their human resource policies. Secondly, that educators integrate these findings into course curriculum to inform females of the importance of mentoring, strong family support and networking in their career progression. Recommendations for future research include interviewing women who ar (open full item for complete abstract)

Committee: Dr. Julie H. Edmister (Advisor); Dr. Mark A. Earley (Committee Member); Dr. Diane Frey (Committee Member); Dr. Judy Jackson May (Committee Member); Dr. Martha Shouldis (Committee Member) Subjects: Community Colleges; Education; Gender; Health Care; Higher Education; Management; Womens Studies

Master of Education (MEd), Bowling Green State University, 2006, Human Movement, Sport and Leisure Studies /Sport Administration

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the high school sports experiences of female athletes. In an attempt to obtain a better understanding of these experiences, focus group and individual interview sessions were conducted with twelve intercollegiate athletes who were members of Division I soccer and volleyball teams at a mid-sized Midwestern University in the United States. This study examined the role that socializing agents such as parents, coaches, teammates/peers, and the media play in both positively and negatively influencing the sports experiences of these female athletes. Results revealed overwhelming support for the value that agents play in introducing athletes to sports and providing continued support throughout their sports careers. Results also showed that negative interaction with certain socializing agents sometimes led athletes to sacrifice other aspects of their social lives and at times led them to consider quitting sports. In some instances, athletes did quit their sports teams due to negative interactions. Additionally, sports participation allowed athletes to formulate their identities around sports. Based on the results of this study, I suggest that more educational opportunities need to be provided for various socializing influences such as parents, coaches, teammates/peers, and the media, all of whom impact the participation experiences of girls and women in sport.

Committee: Nancy Spencer (Advisor) Subjects: Sociology, General