▼ Research has shown that gay and bisexual males use alcohol in higher quantities and more frequently than their heterosexual counterparts. In this study, I examined the relationship between sexual identity (internalized homonegativity and gay identity formation) and the quantity and frequency of alcohol use, drinking-related consequences, and drinking-related outcome expectancies in gay and bisexual males. I recruited two samples (n1 = 529; n2 = 337) via the World-Wide-Web who completed my survey online. Participants in both samples who reported a more integrated gay identity also reported less internalized homonegativity. In the second sample, there was a small but consistent relationship between internalized homonegativity, quantity and frequency of alcohol use and drinking related consequences. There was no relationship between gay identity formation and any of the drinking outcome variables. None of the sexual identity variables explained more than 10% of the variance in alcohol-related behaviors. Although the methods of this project attempted to address some of the limitations of previous research by using a larger sample size, using more than one measure of internalized homonegativity, and attempting to recruit a demographically diverse sample, my results are similar to previous results. Future directions for research include recruiting a wider range of problem and non-problem drinkers, more subjects in the lower stages of gay identity development, and subjects who are less educated, older, lower income, and from a variety of ethnic backgrounds. Advisors/Committee Members: Rosenberg, Harold.

▼ Friends provide many benefits. However, same-sex friends may also compete with us for mates. Schadenfreude is the feeling of pleasure that occurs when another person experiences a misfortune. I view schadenfreude as a psychological mechanism designed to help us deal with the problems associated with intrasexual competition. In this research, I focus on competition between same-sex friends. Participants described a time when they experienced schadenfreude toward a same-sex or opposite-sex friend and completed a survey regarding schadenfreude in friendships. The primary hypothesis was that schadenfreude would be elicited within same-sex friendships by events that lowered one's friends' mate value. Results showed that schadenfreude is ubiquitous within college students’ friendships. The most common themes present in participants’ narrative accounts were competition within work, sports, and academic contexts, justice restoration, and misfortunes that occurred after a friend had rejected or betrayed the participant. Schadenfreude does appear to track physical attractiveness among women. However, schadenfreude does not appear to track status for men. The Discussion focuses on the ubiquitous nature of schadenfreude within friendships, highlighting a potential dark side of friendship. Advisors/Committee Members: Gordon, Anne K.

▼ With a sample of 65 mildly and moderately depressed undergraduates, the present study evaluated the effects of a spiritually integrated intervention as compared to a secular intervention and a no treatment control condition. The spiritual intervention and secular intervention were of equivalent length and were offered to participants via the internet. Participants completed criterion measures for psychological and spiritual well being at three time points during the course of the study: at the outset of the study, directly following the five-week interventions, and one month following the completion of the interventions. Results of statistical significance testing suggested that the explicit inclusion of spirituality in an intervention for depression does not offer resources that are unique to the problems of depression. More specifically, participants reported similar psychological improvement across all three conditions. However, follow-up and exploratory analyses suggested that participants who completed the spiritually integrated intervention reported less depression and more positive affect than other participants. Results from statistical and clinical significance testing are discussed. Advisors/Committee Members: Pargament, Kenneth.

▼ Children as young as preschoolers have been found to hold anti-fat, pro-thin biases. These anti-fat attitudes persist through adolescence and into adulthood. Anti-fat attitudes can have serious social and psychological implications for people of all ages. Not only are anti-fat attitudes widespread and potentially harmful, these attitudes may have unique characteristics that differentiate them from other prejudicial attitudes. Unlike some other forms of prejudice, anti-fat attitudes have become more prevalent over time, people are willing to admit to holding anti-fat attitudes, and even individuals who are fat also hold anti-fat attitudes. The current study investigated children's, adolescents' and young adults' anti-fat attitudes in comparison to other attitudes such as racial prejudice, and prejudice against smokers and individuals with physical disabilities. Attitudes were measured both explicitly and implicitly. Furthermore, participants' level of social desirability and their beliefs about the controllability of being a member of the target groups (being fat, African American, physically disabled, or a smoker) was assessed and compared to their explicit and implicit attitudes. Results indicated that explicit anti-fat attitudes remained stable across age groups and implicit anti-fat attitudes became more negative with age. In addition to displaying implicit negative biases against fat people, participants in this study also held explicit and implicit biases toward smokers. However, contrary to past research, these attitudes were not related to participants' beliefs about the controllability of being fat or being a smoker. Further research is needed to clarify the origins and basis of people's negative attitudes toward these groups. Advisors/Committee Members: Musher-Eizenman, Dara.

▼ Although some lies can damage relationships, we hypothesized that altruistic white lies (i.e., lies of minimal importance told to protect another) may benefit romantic relationships by buffering individuals against the potentially damaging effects of hurtful, albeit relatively minor, information. Positive relationship illusions (e.g., believing your relationship is more immune than others’ relationships to conflict and divorce) have been shown to be positively associated with relationship satisfaction. We hypothesized that altruistic white lies may help create positive illusions within relationships. In order to evaluate the potential links between altruistic white lies, positive relationship illusions, and relationship satisfaction, we created and validated a new scale called the Lying In Amorous Relationships Scale (LIARS). This scale assesses individual differences in attitudes toward telling altruistically motivated white lies to a romantic relationship partner. In a series of three studies we assessed the factor structure, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity of the LIARS, as well as whether favorable attitudes toward altruistic white lies are positively correlated with positive illusions and relationship satisfaction. The results of Study 1 indicated that the LIARS is a reliable, unidimensional scale that is best conceptualized as a single factor. In Study 2 the LIARS demonstrated good discriminant validity with measures of academic achievement and locus of control, as well as good predictive validity with behavioral intentions to tell one’s partner an altruistic white lie in response to a variety of scenarios. As predicted, LIARS scores also differed as a function of participants’ marital status and affiliation with the university. Contrary to predictions, the LIARS scores of men and women did not differ. Additionally, the LIARS did not demonstrate convergent validity with measures of empathic concern and perspective taking. Study 3 indicated that, contrary to our predictions, LIARS scores were negatively, rather than positively, correlated with positive relationship illusions (r = -.22) and relationship satisfaction (r = -.36). Thus, more positive attitudes toward telling altruistic white lies to a relationship partner were associated with fewer positive illusions and less relationship satisfaction. Stated another way, a preference for truth-telling (versus telling white lies) was associated with more positive illusions and greater relationship satisfaction. Overall, we conclude that the LIARS is a reliable measure of individual differences in attitudes toward telling one’s partner altruistically motivated white lies that demonstrates good discriminant and predictive validity. We also conclude that a preference for telling one’s partner the harsh truth (as opposed to telling altruistic white lies) is associated with greater positive illusions and relationship satisfaction, particularly for younger individuals, presumably with less relationship experience. Advisors/Committee Members: Gordon, Anne K.

▼ Work breaks are commonly incorporated into employees’ workdays under the assumption that breaks have a restorative effect on employee well-being. In the present study, I tested this assumption by examining well-being changes over the course of a workday, and recovery experiences engaged in during lunch breaks were tested as predictors of post-lunch break well-being. Results indicated that there were overall changes in worker well-being throughout the day with well-being being significantly lower at the end of a workday than at other measurement periods. Furthermore, detachment and positive work reflection experienced during the lunch break were significant predictors of exhaustion, fatigue, and vigor after lunch, and only positive work reflection during lunch significantly predicted post-lunch attentiveness. Control experienced during lunch significantly predicted exhaustion and attentiveness at the end of the workday. The results obtained from this study shed light on general trends in well-being throughout employee workdays, and further affirm the importance of engaging in recovery experiences during respites. Advisors/Committee Members: Fritz, Charlotte.

▼ The current study examined the victimization experiences of LGB older adolescents, their utilization of psycho-spiritual responses (i.e., religious coping and struggle, forgiveness), and the implication of these processes for their adjustment. An Internet sample of 276 LGB adolescents (18-24) completed measures of victimization, psycho-spiritual responses to victimization, and adjustment. Results indicate that victimization and psycho-spiritual responses had low to high prevalence. Victimization experiences were associated with higher sexual identity development, and religious victimization was associated with psychological distress. Religious struggle partially mediated the relation between religious victimization and psychological distress such that greater victimization was associated with greater spiritual struggles, which in turn was associated with greater psychological distress. Letting go forgiveness, religious coping, and religious struggle were significant moderators in the relation between aspects of minority stress and adjustment. These results suggest that LGB adolescents experience minority stress, that they generally do not turn to religion in response to minority stress and that they experience religious struggles that are associated with distress. Finally, letting go forgiveness is a process that might have promising implications for LGB adolescents who experience minority stress. Advisors/Committee Members: Dubow, Eric F.

▼ Situational judgment tests (SJTs) have been shown to be effective and useful organizational selection tools. However, researchers question what they measure. The position of the current study (and others) is that SJTs are both measures and constructs; SJTs have the ability to measure various constructs (depending on how they are constructed) but inherently assess unique construct(s) that some have suggested is judgment. Using the multi-trait multi-method design, the current study hypothesized that after all variance components of SJTs were isolated, evidence for a situational judgment construct would be found. Results did not support the hypothesis. Instead, the MTMM displayed method (rather than construct) factors as well as expected correlations between SJTs and other related variables. Implications for SJTs is discussed. Advisors/Committee Members: Highhouse, Scott.

▼ Based on the elaborated intrusion theory of desire (Kavanagh, Andrade, and May, 2005), this study was designed to examine the comparative impact of three types of imagery interventions (visual, olfactory, and a combination of visual and olfactory) versus a distraction intervention on self-reported craving for cigarettes by regular smokers. Participants included university students (N=54) who had been smoking at least a pack of cigarettes per day for the past 3 to 6 months and had been deprived of nicotine for at least 6 hours prior to their participation. Recruitment was performed via email announcements, classroom announcements, and web postings. Using the 10-item, self-report Questionnaire of Smoking Urges, Brief Version (Cox, Tiffany, and Christen, 2001), participants’ craving levels were assessed at baseline, following 2 minutes of in vivo cue-exposure, during a 2-minute imagery or distraction control intervention, and following the imagery or distraction control intervention. Participants showed significantly lower self-reported craving during the imagery conditions than during the distraction control condition. There was not a significant difference in the level of craving among the imagery conditions. Despite explicit instructions to focus on the designated form(s) of sensory imagery, a majority of participants in each of the imagery conditions reported experiencing additional forms of sensory imagery (e.g., auditory imagery). This finding suggests that it might be difficult for people to sustain uni-sensory images even over short periods of time. In general, participants’ vividness of imagery was not correlated with lower craving scores during the intervention. There was one exception; in the combined imagery condition, vividness of olfactory imagery was positively correlated with a decrease in self-reported craving. Notably, in all conditions a “rebound effect” was observed in that craving increased shortly after the imagery or distraction intervention had ended. Clinical implications for the elaborated intrusion theory are discussed. Advisors/Committee Members: Rosenberg, Harold.

▼ The present study examined whether ecological momentary assessment (EMA) diary format and social desirability impacted reports of dietary temptations, lapses, coping, and abstinence violation effects (AVEs) by participants in a behavioral weight loss program (BWLP). Participants were 54 sedentary, obese adults in a six-month BWLP who completed 1-week dietary temptation and lapse diaries using open- or closed-formatted electronic diaries. Participants also completed the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSDS). Participants with closed diaries reported more coping responses than those with open diaries. A social desirability by diary format interaction for AVEs indicated that during lapses, participants using open diaries reported similar numbers of negative AVEs regardless of social desirability. However, participants using closed diaries reported more negative AVEs when lower in social desirability, and reported fewer negative AVEs when higher in social desirability. Findings suggest that diary format and social desirability appear to impact EMA reports of dietary temptations and lapses. Advisors/Committee Members: Carels, Robert A.

▼ Researchers have long been interested in the meaning derived from paid employment. One conceptualization of work meaning is work orientation. The literature on this concept proposes three ways a person can experience paid employment: as a job, a career or a calling (Wrzesniewski, McCauley, Rozin and Schwartz, 1997). The established measure of work orientation uses a binary, true/false response format. This investigation addressed whether a 5-point Likert response format provides enhanced criterion related validity over the traditional response format. Two explanations were proposed that may contribute to differences in validity: reliability and participant experience. The Likert response format was believed to be more reliable and allow participants to more readily express themselves. The first study found that the Likert response format provided greater criterion related validity but significant differences in reliability were found only for the calling subscale. In the second study, participants perceived the Likert response format as allowing an easier and more accurate response. These results show that the Likert response format facilitates greater validity not just through greater reliability, but by increasing the ability of the measure to capture true variance. Advisors/Committee Members: Gillespie, Jennifer Z.

▼ With the increasing emphasis on customer service in business and industry, understanding how employees respond to emotional demands and manage emotions during interactions with customers is critical for organizational performance. Managing emotions for a wage can encompass several strategies, including: surface acting, deep acting and the expression of genuine felt emotions. Research on the meaning of work has also received increased attention recently. In complying with emotional demands inherent in an occupation, the degree a person perceives the job as meaningful, and has a calling orientation, may increase emotional labor, particularly deep acting and genuine felt emotions. The present study examined if having a calling orientation for work, or perceiving work as significant and rewarding, strengthened the relationship between customer emotional demands and emotional labor. Using two measures of customer emotional demands (O*NET database index and self-report), the present study found that emotional demands were positively related to self-reported emotional labor strategies. In addition, the calling orientation significantly moderated the relationship between non-self report and self-report emotional demands, and emotional labor strategies. People high in calling engaged in more deep acting and genuine felt emotion across emotional demands relative to people low in calling. Finally, the interaction between calling and emotional demands significantly predicted global job satisfaction, and in separate regression equations, was mediated by surface acting, deep acting and genuine felt emotions. Advisors/Committee Members: Gillespie, Jennifer.