▼ The research studied a subterranean sediment deposit in an abandoned underground passage and soils from a sinkhole within the Scott Hollow drainage basin, Monroe County, southeast West Virginia. The purpose was to decipher how the lake formed, and the origin of the deposited sediment. Two excavations in the sinkhole overlying the eastern portion of the cave and a total of 11 samples were collected for study. 174 m of cave passage was mapped to delineate the morphology, calculate passage volume, volume initially covered by sediment and the current volume of sediment in place. Five profiles were made from the cave, and 32 sediment layers sampled. Grain size and environmental magnetic analyses were conducted. A composite stratigraphic column of the subterranean sediments was constructed to establish depositional sequence. The results indicated that the overlying soils form part of Teas-Calvin-Litz and Frederick-Duffield-Dunmore soil associations. The survey showed that lake was formed from partial conduit blockage by damming of the stream when the ceiling of the cave collapsed. 517 m3 of fluvial sediment was then deposited, of which 64% has since been eroded. There is currently 1398 m3 of open passage volume. The deposition was from two major hydrologic  ” depositional cut and fill phases resulting to the four sediment terraces. The lower terraces are younger than the upper terraces, as evidenced by the lower sediments lapping onto the upper terrace. Channel and wall irregularities and the breaching of the dam resulted in irregular deposition and erosion of the sediment. The environmental magnetic studies showed high magnetic mineral concentrations, abundant superparamagnetic grain fractions, and both low and high magnetic coercivity minerals. Correlation of the magnetic mineralogy, however, showed the subterranean sediment to be composed of high coercivity minerals (goethite) and the soils composed of low coercivity minerals such as magnetite. Although correlation of soils and cave sediment was not possible based on magnetic mineralogy, there existed a general correlation between the layers of sediment found within the stratigraphic column constructed from the cave sediment. The morphology of the cave and the sediment present substantiate that sediments were deposited due to partial conduit blockage from damming of stream. Grain size analyses indicate that samples are mainly of clay, silt, sand, pebbles and some cobble size fractions. Gravel mineralogy is shale and chert. Shales in the sediment and the cave wall are both fine grained and smooth in texture, with light  ” dark gray to greenish gray coloration. This is different from shales found in the soils which have light-gray color. Based on these findings, it can therefore be argued that gravels found in the cave sediment did not originate solely from outside the cave. The color of the samples was determined in-situ. This may have led to apparent differences in color due to variable moisture conditions. The hypothesis that cave sediments were derived from a sinkhole overlying the eastern environs could not be substantiated because of the imprecise correlation established between cave sediment and sinkhole soils. The cave sediments are likely autochthonous at least in part. Advisors/Committee Members: Sasowsky, Ira.

▼ In 1997, the drilling of a residential well resulted in catastrophic, ongoing groundwater leakage into Scott Hollow Cave, at a depth of approximately 120 meters below the land surface. The cave system is on the Appalachian Plateau in southeastern West Virginia, within the Hillsdale Limestone and Maccrady Shale. Initial spot measurements of solutes showed that the leaking water had low nitrate, high sulfate, and was saturated with respect to calcite. This indicated long aquifer residence time, and minimal recharge from overlying agricultural lands. Spot measurements of discharge showed a trend of generally decreasing flow. This, in concert with loss of yield from surrounding wells, suggested that the drainage was causing substantial dewatering of one or more aquifers. To evaluate the long term effects on the aquifer(s), high-resolution monitoring of the leaking water was undertaken. A custom-built orifice weir, a transducer stage recorder, and conductivity and temperature sensors were installed in order to undertake the monitoring. The parameters were collected in both long-term (20-minute) and short-term (8 second) intervals on data loggers. In addition, grab samples were acquired at irregular intervals to measure pH and major ion concentrations, which allowed for conductance to be used as a proxy for overall water chemistry. Discharge has varied between 4.4 and 8.3 m3/hr over the approximately one-year period of investigation. The data show a rich structure not apparent from the initial spot interval sampling. Several different patterns of flow variance occur. The first pattern involves frequent downward spikes of magnitude 0.10 to 1.77 m3/hr, which last less than one time interval (20 minutes), and recur on the scale of minutes to hours. This pattern is caused by the pumping of a nearby residential well. A second pattern is a pseudo-sinusoidal undulation that is superimposed upon the long-term discharge, occurring for periods of hours to days, with a variation of up to +/- 0.25 m3/hr. This pattern is due to atmospheric loading caused by fluctuations in barometric (atmospheric) pressure. Finally, on a scale of months, a trend of long-term declining discharge, which consists of a gentle downward slope of approximately 0.2 m3/hr per month is seen. This pattern shows the continuous drainage and decline of one or more aquifers. Long-term measurements of conductivity and temperature also displayed short-term spikes, with the conductivity spikes occurring in a downward direction and the temperature spikes occurring in an upward direction. Conductivity spikes varied in magnitude between a drop of 0.687 µS/cm for the smallest spikes and a drop of 15.85 µS/cm for the largest spikes. Temperature spikes varied between an increase of 0.0047 °C and 0.0284 °C throughout the period of the study. High-resolution (8-second interval) monitoring of the parameters discharge, conductivity, and temperature was also undertaken. This monitoring revealed a connection between the major spikes of each of the parameters being monitored, where all three spikes occur nearly simultaneously. The drop in total head that occurs when the residential well is pumped causes a decrease in flow to the Spigot, and a corresponding short-term drop in water level (which relates to a drop discharge). The drop in water level corresponds to a drop in conductivity, which is due to the diminished mixing of two aquifers with slightly different water chemistry that occurs during pumping conditions. A small upward temperature spike is caused by the heating of the motor within the well pump. The installation of a current detector within the residential well shows that this well is the sole contributor to discharge spikes at the Spigot, and is therefore also likely related to the initial leakage in 1997. The aquifer providing the majority of water being discharged at the Spigot is probably a fractured-shale aquifer, even though there are adjacent karst features. This is based on the invariant geochemistry of the water samples collected at the Spigot, and the nature of the flow response during atmospheric loading. Advisors/Committee Members: Sasowsky, Ira D.

▼ The field of paleotempestology has gained more awareness in the past decade as a result of increased hurricane intensity, quantity, and duration within the late Holocene. One of the best localities to find records of hurricane overwash deposits is in the Bahamian islands. San Salvador Island, Bahamas (SSI) is a small (150km2), isolated carbonate platform, that contains shallow (0.5-3m) saline lakes that occur in between interdune areas of arcuate dune ridges. Due to San Salvador Island’s location within the Bahamian archipelago and the Atlantic Ocean, the island is poised to record hurricane strikes and the record of these events can be found in coastal lakes. Clear Pond is a shallow (~1m), variably saline (16-30 ppt) lake in the southwestern edge of the island, that is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by Holocene dunes. It was a previously uncharacterized pond, but like many other depositional environments on San Salvador, it is constantly recording climatic and anthropogenic changes on the island. This study addresses the following questions: 1) Is there a seasonal salinity variation within the pond and what is the general limnology of the pond, 2) Can we identify large storm events in the sedimentary record of Clear Pond, and 3) What is the depositional history for Clear Pond for the past 4000 years? Nine sediment cores, ranging in length from 50 to 150 cm, were recovered from Clear Pond. The cores were analyzed for organic and carbonate content, dry bulk density, grain size, sediment fabric, and mollusk and ostracode composition. Additionally, x-ray fluorescence, spectrophotometry, and x-radiography were carried out on sediment cores. Salinity varied from brackish conditions in the summer and fall to more marine during the winter and spring seasons. It was also influenced by a previously uncharacterized karst conduit. Large storm events were identified through an increase in grain size and dry bulk density, and additionally by x-radiographs. A catastrophic hurricane recurrence interval of 478 years and an annual landfall probability of 0.21% were found as well. The record of Clear Pond indicates an average sedimentation rate of 2.3 cm/ 100 years which suggests the record recovered is at least 5200 years old. These cores record a major climatic shift occurring at 1460 ybp which correlates with the end of a documented Caribbean dryness period. The facies shift is from a sand and mud laminated facies to a recent, massive bioturbated facies. The record documents multiple hurricane strikes from 1600-3400 ybp which supports a hurricane "hyperactivity period" from 1000- 3000 ybp from other areas in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. These large storm events are linked to two large-scale climate mechanisms, the location of the Bermuda high and the strength of the North Atlantic Oscillation. The ability to characterize and identify past overwash deposits in the Bahamas may be useful in climate reconstruction and landfall probability assessments. These results are the first proxy records for hurricane strikes on the west coast of San Salvador Island. Advisors/Committee Members: Park, Lisa.

▼ With the growing population, development of large residential houses, commercial and industrial developments, and the construction of Interstate 80 and Interstate 77 interchange, water quality of Furnace Run has become an important issue. Recent studies by the Ohio EPA have found the stream to only be in partial attainment for aquatic life. In 2003 a study by the Metroparks found high dissolved solids in one of the tributaries to Furnace Run that flows through the park. The high dissolved solids were attributed to the ongoing construction of the highway interchange. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence western and eastern tributaries that flow within Furnace Run Metropark have on the water quality of Furnace Run. The land use west of Furnace Run consists of large housing developments; and that to the east consists of highways, an interchange, houses, commercial, and industrial developments. Field work was performed on 23 tributaries, and Furnace Run itself, within the Furnace Run Metropark from June 5, 2010, through April 9, 2011. Water samples were collected nine times during the study period from Furnace Run and its tributaries for water quality analysis for common anion concentrations; and on two occasions, samples were collect for analysis for cation concentrations. The cation and anion data were used to create Piper diagrams to determine water types. Also, suspended sediment load was measured using the Ohio Sediment Stick to find the actual amount of mineral and organic particles transported in the tributaries. This study found that the use of road deicer in the winter months may be contributing to the high concentration of chloride in Furnace Run and its tributaries. The eastern tributaries were affected the most due to their location near the highways. Duration between storm events also had an effect on the water quality of the streams. Pollutants were able to build up on roadways and other surfaces during dry days, which may have lead to the increase in pollutant concentrations in the streams during the first flush from the next storm event. Advisors/Committee Members: Szabo, John.

▼ The Eocene Green River Formation (USA) contains one of the best known Konservat Lagerstätte in the fossil record. Whereas there have been many studies performed on the vertebrate fauna, particularly the fish, there have been relatively few studies done on the invertebrate fauna such as the ostracodes from this famous fossil deposit. Two species (Candona pagei and Hemicyprinotis watsonensis) were recovered from 16 intervals and three study sites from Fossil Basin, a sub-basin of the Greater Green River Basin. The two species represent differing ecological tolerances, both mud-dwelling and plant-dwelling. This formed the basis for a reconstruction of lake levels throughout the history of Fossil Lake. This in turn can be used to examine biotic response to climate change during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). Stratigraphic sections were measured at three sites and sampled for ostracodes. A 1 cm x 1 cm grid was used to quantify the number of ostracode valves in each sample. Lamination counts were also performed on samples collected in Smith Hollow Quarry (SHQ), which yielded the number of laminations per millimeter. This was compared throughout the section to assess how it changed throughout Fossil Lake's history at SHQ. Taphonomic uniformity was quantified by comparing the number of whole valves in the samples of kerogen-poor versus kerogen-rich laminated micrites (kerogen-rich micrites are thought to have been deposited under deep, anoxic water conditions), and then compared to each other. Frequencies of occurrence and abundances of individuals per bed were also compared between the two types of micrites. The trophic structure of the lake was also assembled to attempt a better understanding of the community ecology of Fossil Lake. This study demonstrates the utility of ostracode species assemblages in tracking lake-level fluctuations throughout the history of Fossil Lake during a time of climate change. This has important implications and applications for studies of current climate change. Advisors/Committee Members: Park, Lisa.

▼ Eastern Ohio is home to over 1,000 abandoned underground mines (AUM), mostly from coal production, which began more than 200 years ago. The Mushroom Farm site, located in North Lima, Ohio is plagued with acid mine drainage (AMD) resulting from surface mining conducted in the 1980's and an AUM from the late 1800's. My principal objective was to identify the source of AMD at the Musrhoom Farm site and determine if mine type dictates the geochemistry of AMD produced. Surface and groundwater samples, along with hydrologic data, were collected seasonally from 2010-2011 to determine the current direction of groundwater flow. The results revealed groundwater recharge occurring in the local topographic high spot, with flow generally following a radial pattern away from it. Temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and conductivity were collected in the field. The pH ranged from 2.65 to 8.36, with most readings between 3 and 6. Common ion concentrations were determined using ion chromatography, colorimetric assays, inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometry, and atomic absorption spectrometry (AA). Geochemical analysis revealed that AMD is being generated in the northern portion where spoil was homogenized with overburden after surface mining, and also in the southern portion where the AUM exists. Hydrologic data and specific yield (Sy) calculations show that where as there is a smaller volume of AMD being generated in the southern portion (10 million liters versus 50 million liters at a given time), much higher concentrations of iron and sulfate result here (~5,000mg/L versus ~2000 mg/L). Elevated iron and sulfate, along with low pH values are indicative of AMD. Using the aqueous geochemical modeling program, Web-Phreeq, I identified a geochemical signature based on iron, sulfate, aluminum, and calcium speciation for the AMD resulting from the AUM. The AMD created from surface spoil proved to be too heterogeneous to establish speciation trends. Historical hydrologic data from well logs and aerial photo analysis (dating back to 1959) revealed that anthropogenic changes to the landscape result in an altered hydrogeology. The AUM at the Mushroom Farm site did not produce any observable AMD until surface mining had been conducted; that process can greatly alter permeability, groundwater recharge, and overburden thickness and composition. Advisors/Committee Members: Senko, John.